A selective, systemic herbicide in the chlorophenoxy family, 2,4-D is widely used by homeowners, lawn care professionals and farmers to kill unwanted broadleaf (non-grassy) plants. 2,4-D is applied to grassy crops such as wheat, home and public lawns and gardens, and on roadsides, golf courses, forests and waterways.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, (2,4-dichlorophenoxy) acetic acid is Highly Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, (2,4-dichlorophenoxy) acetic acid is Highly Toxic
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), (2,4-dichlorophenoxy) acetic acid is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
Neurotoxin = Can harm brain and central nervous system
Suspected Endocrine Disruptor = May interfere with, mimic or block hormones
Development Toxicant = Can interfere with normal development of a fetus or child
Other
Some formulations cause severe skin and severe eye irritation. Some 2,4-D formulations can cause irreversible eye damage as the result of direct contact.
Nose, throat and lung irritation, including coughing and shortness of breath.
Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, stomach pain, loss of appetite, headache, fatigue, dizziness, hypertension, slowed heart rate, muscle weakness, incoordination, sweating, and at high doses, death.
Liver, kidney, digestive, muscular, or nervous system damage and chloracne may result from high-dose or long-term exposure.
Possible association with non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma in farm or forestry workers exposed through their work. The World Health Organization considers chlorophenoxy herbicides, including 2,4-D, to be possible human carcinogens. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has said 2,4-D’s carcinogenicity is not classifiable, however.
How Exposures Occur
Absorption Through the Skin
Children exposed to 2,4-D through the skin by touching soil or vegetation that has recently been treated with 2,4-D.
From Food and Water
2,4-D residues have been detected on potatoes, oranges, grapefruit, apples, peaches, peas, and grapes. 2,4-D is also widely used on wheat. 2,4-D has been found in some groundwater supplies, and as a result could reach some drinking water.
Inhalation
Children can inhale 2,4-D during spraying or when spray drifts from neighboring lawns or farms. They can also inhale the residues tracked onto carpets and floors from outdoors.
Mouth Behaviors
Children may put contaminated objects in their mouths, or they may touch the residues with fingers, which go into mouths and around eyes.
Occupational
Children of farm workers and pesticide applicators are exposed to higher amounts of 2,4-D and other pesticides, which can enter the home on clothing, shoes and other items.
Significant Statistics
2,4-D is the most widely used herbicide in the world.
Approximately 700 products containing 2,4-D are registered with the U.S. EPA for general use. Read labels and ask lawn care professionals what they plan on using in and around your home. You can also find out if 2,4-D is an ingredient in a pesticide product in Pesticide Action Network Pesticides Database. Or, search for 2,4-D in the National Library of Medicine’s Household Products Database to find a list of brands that contain it.
2,4-D is regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act. This law requires that community water systems monitor 2,4-D levels, and inform the public when levels exceed the set Maximum Contamination Level (MCL). The MCL for 2,4-D is 70 parts per billion.
If your water source is a well, your water is not monitored for contaminants as is required for public water supplies by the Safe Drinking Water Act. Private testing of the water is necessary.
Even if your water comes from a community water system, contaminant levels can vary from house to house. You can have your water tested by sending samples to a certified laboratory. For more information on how to test your water, see Safe Drinking Water: Testing Your Water.
You can search for water quality reports from your water provider, obtain information on well water testing and find a list of state-certified drinking water laboratories at the U.S. EPA’s Office of Water’s website or call the EPA’s Safe Drinking Water Hotline, 800-426-4791.
Food: There is no way for parents to determine exactly how much 2,4-D may be in their children’s food. You can get a rough idea of the fruits and vegetables that may contain 2,4-D from:
How to minimize exposure to (2,4-dichlorophenoxy) acetic acid
Avoid the use of pesticides whenever possible, especially near children.
Contact your local sanitation department or hazardous waste disposal program to find out how to dispose of pesticides properly. Earth 911 lists hazardous waste disposal sites by zip code.
If testing of your water reveals high levels of 2,4-D, you can filter your tap water.
Alternatives
Adopt Integrated Pest Management, instead of resorting to herbicides for weed removal. For information on IPM, see Pest Control without Pesticides.
Remove garden weeds by hand; mulch the soil around garden plants to prevent weeds from sprouting. Diversify landscaping to reduce turf grass. See also How to Kill Weeds Without Herbicides.
Maintaining a healthy lawn is your best defense against weedy invaders. For more information about how to accomplish this, consult the resources below.
Otherwise, wash fruits and vegetables well and peel them.
Use a doormat to wipe feet or take shoes off at the door to prevent pesticides from being tracked indoors. Replace carpets with washable rugs and mop floors frequently to remove any residues.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Cox, Caroline. �Managing Weeds at Home and in Our Communities,� Journal of Pesticide Reform, Vol. 17, No. 1 (Spring 1997).
http://www.pesticide.org/managing.pdf
Harte, John, et al. Toxics A to Z: A Guide to Everyday Pollution Hazards. University of California Press, 1991.
Johnson, David. Weed Management for the Lawn and Garden, Washington Toxics Coalition, May 2000.
paradichlorobenzene, p-dichlorobenzene, PDCB, paramothballs, para crystals, paracide, p-DCB
Description
Paradichlorobenzene is a white solid in the halogenated organic class of chemicals. It has a sweet, mothball-like odor and evaporates easily. It is widely sold for household use as deodorizer and moth control blocks for toilet bowls, diaper pails and closets, and as mothballs. PDCB is also an ingredient in some toilet bowl cleaners, miticides for pet birds, rodent repellents, and insecticide used on fruit trees.
Children may be exposed to PDCB fumes, or they could accidentally ingest the moth balls.
Paradichlorobenzene is also used to manufacture plastics and other industrial chemicals.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, 1,4-dichlorobenzene is Highly Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, 1,4-dichlorobenzene is Moderately Toxic
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), 1,4-dichlorobenzene is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is likely to cause cancer. It is considered a Probable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Allergen
Neurotoxin = Can harm brain and central nervous system
Other
High vapor concentrations may irritate eyes, nose, skin and respiratory tract. Other effects include headache, weakness, dizziness, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, trembling, numbness in the arms and legs and swelling of the eyes, hands, and feet.
Prolonged skin contact may produce a burning sensation or allergic rash/dermatitis.
Long-term exposure may damage the liver, kidneys, lungs, skin, and central nervous system, and may damage blood cells, causing anemia.
Cancer. Test animals exposed to PDCB developed kidney and liver tumors.
How Exposures Occur
From Indoor Air
Children can be exposed to paradichlorobenzene by breathing contaminated indoor air. Indoor air levels of PDCB can rise due to use of mothballs, deodorizing blocks for toilets and diaper pails, some toilet bowl cleaners and pesticides that contain it. Clothing stored with mothballs may continue to emit paradichlorobenzene vapors, exposing children if they spend time in or near such clothing.
Accidental Ingestion
Children may eat mothballs or deodorizing blocks used in toilets and diaper pails, or swallow cleaners containing paradichlorobenzene. They can also ingest it by touching these products and putting their fingers in their mouths.
Drinking Water
Children can be exposed to PDCB from drinking contaminated water. This chemical is regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act.
In Foods
Children may be exposed to PDCB through eating beef, pork, chicken, and eggs from animals kept in stalls where p-DCB was used to control odors, and through eating sportfish from contaminated waters.
Significant Statistics
Paradichlorobenzene has been found in 13 percent of the drinking water samples from U.S. surface water sources.
Read labels. Look for paradichlorobenzene in ingredient listings on packages of mothballs, deodorizing blocks, toilet bowl cleaners, mite sprays and other pesticides. White deodorizer blocks labeled as “cedar,” “pine,” “lavender,” or other natural scents may contain or consist primarily of paradichlorobenzene. If you are unsure about the ingredients in such products, ask the manufacturer to send you a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS), which they are required to provide.
Smell the product (carefully). Paradichlorobenzene smells similar to mothballs and is the sweet odor often encountered in public restrooms.
A search for paradichlorobenzene in the National Library of Medicine’s Household Products Database will show a list of brands that contain it.
Paradichlorobenzene (1,4-dichlorobenzene, PDCB) is regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act. This law requires that community water systems monitor PDCB levels, and make public when levels exceed the set Maximum Contamination Level (MCL). The MCL for PDCB has also been set at 75 parts per billion.
Community water systems are required to produce annual consumer confidence reports and mail them to every water customer.
If your water source is a well, your water is not monitored for contaminants as is required for public water supplies by the Safe Drinking Water Act. Private testing of the water is necessary.
Even if your water comes from a community water system, contaminant levels can vary from house to house. You can have your water tested by sending samples to a certified laboratory.
You can search for water quality reports from your water provider, obtain information on well water testing and find a list of state-certified drinking water laboratories at the U.S. EPA’s Office of Water’s website or call the EPA’s Safe Drinking Water Hotline, 800-426-4791.
How to minimize exposure to 1,4-dichlorobenzene
Avoid using mothballs and deodorizer blocks in your home, particularly if you have small children,who may mistake them for candy and eat them. If you have used them, open windows and provide adequate ventilation throughout the home to reduce naphthalene fumes. Mothball-scented clothing and bedding should be thoroughly washed before use. Wash mothball-treated clothing and bedding thoroughly before use.
Dispose of mothballs and deodorizing blocks carefully to prevent children from finding them. Contact you local sanitation department or look up the hazardous waste rules in your community on Earth 911.
Avoid accumulating unused woolens. Never store dirty clothes.
Alternatives
Use cedar or other herbal repellents: Store clean clothing in airtight containers or sealed bags with cedar blocks, cedar shavings (available as cage bedding in pet stores), or cedar oil. Place cedar in drawers and closets. Inspect any used clothing or furniture carefully for moths or larvae before bringing them into the house, or clean them first.
To minimize unpleasant odors, keep toilets, garbage cans, and diaper pails clean. Leave an open box of baking soda nearby to absorb odors, and be sure your home is well-ventilated.
1,4-dioxane is primarily used as stabilizer in solvents, such as the dry cleaning chemical trichloroethane, and as a solvent in lacquers, varnishes, paints, plastics, dyes, oils, waxes and resins. It may also be found in some paint/varnish strippers, automotive coolants, and in pesticides as an inert ingredient. Children may be exposed to 1,4-dioxane when products containing are used indoors, especially without adequate ventilation.
1,4-dioxane may also contaminate cosmetics and personal care products containing ethoxylated detergents (see “Detection ” below), including some shampoos, toothpastes and mouthwashes that children may use, as an accidental byproduct.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, 1,4-dioxane is Moderately Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, 1,4-dioxane is Moderately Toxic
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), 1,4-dioxane is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is likely to cause cancer. It is considered a Probable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Other
In laboratory animals, 1,4-dioxane causes cancer. It is considered a probable human carcinogen by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the World Health Organization International Agency for Research on Cancer.
May irritate skin.
How Exposures Occur
Breathing Air/Fumes
1,4-dioxane may be in products that are sprayed, such as pesticides, or may vaporize from products such as varnishes or dry cleaning fluids.
From Drinking Water
1,4-dioxane has been detected in well water near solid waste landfills and radioactive waste disposal sites. 1,4-dioxane does not easily biodegrade when it enters the environment.
From Food
Traces of 1,4-dioxane can be ingested along with food containing residues from packaging or sprayed with pesticides containing 1,4-dioxane as a solvent or inert ingredient.
Through the Skin
1,4-dioxane can readily penetrate skin and scalp during use of contaminated shampoos and other personal care products.
Significant Statistics
Even traces of 1,4-dioxane contamination are cause for concern, according to the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission.
“1,4-Dioxane, CAS No. 123-91-1: Reasonably Anticipated to be a Human Carcinogen.” Tenth Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program, December 2002.http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/roc/tenth/profiles/s080diox.pdf
Between 10.5 and 18.3 million pounds of 1,4-dioxane were produced in the U.S. in 1990.
Nearly one million pounds of 1,4-dioxane were released into the U.S. environment in 1996, according to EPA Toxic Release Inventory estimates.
“1,4-Dioxane, CAS No. 123-91-1: Reasonably Anticipated to be a Human Carcinogen.” Tenth Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program, December 2002.http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/roc/tenth/profiles/s080diox.pdf
Solutions
How to detect 1,4-dioxane
Read labels on shampoo and mouthwash bottles and other personal care products. 1,4-dioxane may contaminate products containing the following ingredients (ethoxylated detergents): polyethylene, polyethylene glycol, PEG,or polyoxyethylene, or ingredients with part of their names ending in “-eth-”(such as sodium laureth sulfate) or “-oxynol” (such as nonoxynol and octoxynol). Searching for these ingredients in the National Library of Medicine’s Household Products Database will show a list of products that contain it.
How to minimize exposure to 1,4-dioxane
Alternatives
Natural personal care products are sold in natural foods stores. Some may also contain ethoxylated detergents and possibly 1,4-dioxane (see “Detection”), though, so read labels before purchasing.
A selective herbicide in the chlorophenoxy class that is widely used by homeowners, lawn care professionals, and municipalities to kill broadleaf (non-grassy) plants, such as clover and dandelions. Mecoprop is applied primarily to lawns, sports turf, and golf courses, but can also be used on drainage ditch banks, roadsides and forests. Products containing mecoprop often contain other phenoxy herbicides. Mecoprop is also contained in some �weed-and-feed� fertilizer pellets.
Children may come into contact with mecoprop granules or pellets on home or school lawns that have been treated.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, 2-(2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxy)propionic acid is Moderately Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, 2-(2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxy)propionic acid is Moderately Toxic
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), 2-(2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxy)propionic acid is Moderately Toxic
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is likely to cause cancer. It is considered a Probable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Development Toxicant = Can interfere with normal development of a fetus or child
Other
Skin and eye irritation, resulting in redness, swelling, cloudy vision; direct and prolonged exposure to concentrated mecoprop can cause irreversible eye damage.
Mecoprop can irritate the respiratory tract (lungs, nose, throat) and cause a burning sensation in the airways, coughing, dizziness and nausea.
If swallowed, mecoprop can cause muscle weakness, nausea, diarrhea and abdominal pain.
Some (but not all) studies have found higher rates of soft tissue cancers and non-Hodgkin�s lymphoma in humans occupationally exposed to phenoxy herbicides including mecoprop.
Mecoprop has damaged the kidneys of exposed test animals.
Mecoprop has caused miscarriage and birth defects in laboratory rats.
How Exposures Occur
Absorption Through Skin
Children can be exposed to mecoprop if they touch soil or vegetation recently treated with a weed killer containing mecoprop.
Ingestion
Mecoprop can contaminate drinking water. It is frequently found in stormwater samples. Water utilities are not required to test drinking water for mecoprop by the U.S.Environmental Protection Agency.
Inhalation
Children can inhale mecoprop during spraying, when spray drifts from neighboring lawns, or from particles tracked in from outdoors and embedded in carpets.
Occupational
Children of farm workers and pesticide applicators are exposed to higher amounts of mecoprop and other pesticides, which can enter the home on clothing, shoes, etc.
Significant Statistics
Mecoprop is the third most widely used pesticide by homeowners, who applied 3-5 million pounds of it in the U.S. in 1999.
How to detect 2-(2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxy)propionic acid
Approximately 95 products containing mecoprop are registered for use by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Read labels, and request Material Safety Data Sheets before you or a lawn care professional uses any pesticide product around your home. You can also find out if mecoprop is an ingredient in your lawn products on the Pesticide Action Network Pesticide Database. Or, search for mecoprop in the National Library of Medicine’s Household Products Database to find a list of brands that contain it.
Herbicide sprays can drift and damage or kill nontarget plants. If broadleaf plants near the edges of your lawn are drooping or turning brown, mecoprop may have been sprayed on a bordering lawn, golf course or road way.
How to minimize exposure to 2-(2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxy)propionic acid
If your child swallows this pesticide, contact a poison control center immediately.
Alternatives
Remove garden weeds manually, and use mulch, which is more effective than chemical herbicides, around garden plants to prevent weed germination. See also How to Kill Weeds Without Herbicides.
Fostering a healthy lawn is your best defense against weedy invaders. For more information about how to accomplish this, consult the resources below.
To avoid tracking pesticides into the house, where they can become embedded in carpets, always remove shoes at the door or wipe feet on a doormat before entering. Replace carpets with washable rugs. Mop floors frequently.
Pregnant women should avoid all contact with mecoprop.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Cox, Caroline. "Managing Weeds at Home and in Our Communities," Journal of Pesticide Reform, Vol. 17, No. 1 (Spring 1997).
http://www.pesticide.org/managing.pdf
Johnson, David. Weed Management for the Lawn and Garden. Washington Toxics Coalition, May 2000.
Dicamba is an herbicide used to control broadleaf weeds, brush and vines on lawns, grain crops, grasslands and non-crop areas, such as roadways. Dicamba is contained in several pre-mixed herbicide products that contain other herbicides, such as 2,4-D or mecoprop.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, 3,6-dichloro-2-methoxybenzoic acid is Moderately Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, 3,6-dichloro-2-methoxybenzoic acid is Moderately Toxic
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), 3,6-dichloro-2-methoxybenzoic acid is Slightly Toxic
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is considered an Unclassifiable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Other
Respiratory irritation, including difficulty breathing, coughing, wheezing, loss of voice.
Skin and eye irritation, such as rash, redness or burning feeling, eye pain, blurred vision. Can cause severe and permanent damage to eyes.
Neurologic effects, such as agitation, or excitability or depression.
May affect the liver.
One study showed increased risk of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma.
How Exposures Occur
Inhalation
Children may be exposed to dicamba during or after application if they are close to treated areas. Dicamba evaporates and becomes air-borne quickly, especially when temperatures are high. The resulting vapors can drift up to 5 or 10 miles under certain conditions.
Skin Contact
Children may come into contact with dicamba on treated sports fields and lawns. Dicamba is irritating to the skin and eyes.
Children may also pass dicamba from their hands to their eyes by touching their eyes after being in a treated area.
Drinking Water
Dicamba has been found in the drinking water supplies of several states including Ohio, Pennsylvania, Louisiana and Washington.
Accidental Ingestion
Accidental poisoning is a risk on farms or in homes where dicamba is stored within reach of children. Dicamba should be stored out of reach of children and in its original container.
Significant Statistics
The majority of agricultural uses in the U.S. are for corn.
Dicamba was the fourth most commonly used pesticide in the U.S. home and garden market in 1999 (3-5 million pounds per year). An additional 6-8 million pounds were used on agricultural crops in 1999.
Dicamba and 2,4 -D were the most frequently used herbicides at schools in New York State, according to a school survey conducted by the New York State Department of Law.
Read labels on all home and garden pesticides. You can also find out if dicamba is an ingredient in your lawn products on the Pesticide Action Network Pesticide Database. Or, search for dicamba in the National Library of Medicine’s Household Products Database to find a list of brands that contain it.
Dicamba is not regulated by the Safe Drinking Water Act, and public water supplies are not required to test for it. However, if you live in an agricultural area, especially where corn is grown, you may wish to have your water tested by state certified drinking water laboratories.
How to minimize exposure to 3,6-dichloro-2-methoxybenzoic acid
Avoid the use of pesticides whenever possible, especially near children. Any pesticides in your home should be tightly closed and kept out of the reach of children.
Contact your local sanitation department or hazardous waste disposal program to find out how to dispose of pesticides properly. Earth’s 911 lists hazardous waste disposal sites by zip code.
Alternatives
Adopt Integrated Pest Management practices instead of resorting to herbicides for weed removal. Remove garden weeds by hand; mulch the soil around garden plants to prevent weeds from sprouting. Diversify landscaping to reduce turf grass. See also How to Kill Weeds Without Herbicides.
Maintaining a healthy lawn is your best defense against weedy invaders. For more information about how to accomplish this, consult the resources below.
Buy certified organic foods, which are grown without synthetic pesticides, when you can. See 10 Foods to Buy Organic.
Otherwise, wash fruits and vegetables well and peel them.
Warfarin is a rodenticide used in the home, outdoors, in food service establishments, near fruit trees, in storage buildings, sewers and other places where rodents may be a problem. This white, odorless, tasteless compound, an anti-coagulant, causes bleeding and blood-thinning.
Children may come into contact with warfarin in its powder, pellet or bait forms. It should never be used anywhere near children!
Warfarin is also used for medical purposes.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, 3-(alpha-acetonylbenzyl)-4- hydroxycoumarin (warfarin) is Very Highly Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, 3-(alpha-acetonylbenzyl)-4- hydroxycoumarin (warfarin) is Very Highly Toxic
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), 3-(alpha-acetonylbenzyl)-4- hydroxycoumarin (warfarin) is Very Highly Toxic
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical may cause cancer. It is considered a Possible Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Neurotoxin = Can harm brain and central nervous system
Development Toxicant = Can interfere with normal development of a fetus or child
Other
Multiple birth defects including bone and nasal deformities, blindness or unusually small eyes, hydrocephalus (water on the brain), mental retardation.
Fetal, neonatal or maternal bleeding.
Bleeding from the nose, lip, gums or upper airway, blood in urine and feces, bruising, rash.
Paleness or fatigue caused by anemia, muscle and joint pain, blurry vision, eye pain.
Vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea.
Upper airway pain, difficulty in speaking and swallowing, shortness of breath.
How Exposures Occur
Absorptioin Through the Skin
There have been cases of individuals hemorrhaging after repeatedly handling warfarin without gloves.
Accidental Ingestion
Because warfarin may be applied in liquid, pellet or powder forms, a child could either touch the poison with his fingers, which could be swallowed when fingers are put in the mouth, or he could attempt to eat pellets or powder directly. Baits containing warfarin that are not childproof could be opened by a child, who may then eat the poison.
Inhalation
Warfarin is highly toxic when inhaled, which can occur if the powder form is used.
Significant Statistics
Only about 1/3 of infants exposed to therapeutic doses warfarin during the first trimester are normal and live born.
According to American Association for Poison Control Centers, 20,206 people were reported by poison control centers to have been exposed to rodenticides in 1999. Young children are the most common victims of exposure to rodenticides: 17,498 cases of exposure (87%) were children under six years of age.
Litovitz, Toby, et al. �1999 Annual Report of the American Association for Poison Control Centers Toxic Exposure Surveillance System.� American Journal of Emergency Medicine, Vol. 18, No. 5 (September 2000).
http://www.aapcc.org/Annual%20Reports/99report/Entire%20Report.pdf
Solutions
How to detect 3-(alpha-acetonylbenzyl)-4- hydroxycoumarin (warfarin)
Know the ingredients of the rodenticide you are using. Read labels to determine if warfarin is in products in your home or check PAN�s Pesticide Database for a list of brands and products containing this pesticide. If you hire a professional exterminator, ask for safety information, such as a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS), for the products used. New home owners should inspect carefully for rodenticide baits that may have been left by a previous owner.
How to minimize exposure to 3-(alpha-acetonylbenzyl)-4- hydroxycoumarin (warfarin)
If your child swallows, touches or inhales dust from this rodenticide, contact a poison control center immediately. You may be advised to force the exposed person to vomit by giving them a tablespoon of salt in a glass of warm water.
Alternatives
Make your home unwelcome to rodents. Eliminate the source of rodents� livelihood � food and water � indoors and outdoors. Use rodent-proof containers. Cover or store pet food dishes when not in use. Keep wood piles off the ground and away from the house. Cut tall grasses and weeds near the house.
Block the rodent �doorways� to prevent entry. Cover holes (where pipes or cables enter the house, for example) with rodent-resistant materials, such as sheet metal (26 gauge or heavier), perforated metal (24 gauge or heavier with openings no more than 1/4 inch), hardware cloth (19 gauge or heavier with openings no more than 1/4 inch), brick with mortared joints, cement mortar (1:3 mixture) or concrete (1:2:4 mixture).
Set a trap for the pesky mice or rats. Baited traps, such as snap traps, glueboards,and live animal traps, don�t require poisons. (Some glueboards and other traps may use pesticides. Avoid these!) Place the traps where rodents have been seen and near entry points. Remember to check them daily.
Alkylphenol ethoxylates (APEs) are synthetic surfactants used in some detergents and cleaning products. APEs are made from and break down into alkylphenols, which are used as antioxidants in plastics and rubber products. APES and/or other alkyphenol derivatives are also used in pesticides, lube oil, hair dyes and other hair care products, and as nonoxynol-9 in spermicides. The most common APEs are nonylphenol ethoxylates.
Two alkyphenols, nonylphenol and octylphenol, are suspected hormone disruptors; they have been shown to mimic the hormone estrogen. APEs do not biodegrade easily after they are washed down the drain. As a result, nonylphenol has been found in water and sediment downstream from sewage treatment plants, paper pulp mills, and industrial facilities. Some studies have found altered reproduction, feminization, hermaphrodism, and lower survival rates in salmon and other fish living in nonylphenol-contaminated water. These effects have been found in wildlife even at low doses.
Nonylphenol has also been detected in a wide range of foods.
APEs are identified in the ingredient list on the labels for personal care products and spermicides. However, they are rarely listed on household products like cleaners, detergents, and pesticides. You can find out which brands contain APEs through the http://householdproducts.nlm.nih.gov/” target=“_blank”>National Library of Medicine’s Household Products Database.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, alkylphenols and alkylphenol ethoxylates is Moderately Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, alkylphenols and alkylphenol ethoxylates is Moderately Toxic
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), alkylphenols and alkylphenol ethoxylates is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is considered an Unclassifiable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Suspected Endocrine Disruptor = May interfere with, mimic or block hormones
Other
The U.S. Food & Drug Administration has warned that personal care products made with ethoxylated surfactants (identified by the suffix “-oxynol”) may be contaminated with 1,4-dioxane, a carcinogen that readily penetrates the skin. It can be removed during the manufacturing process, but it is unclear whether this is done by manufacturers.
Alkylphenols and APEs have not been evaluated for carcinogenicity by the International Agency for Research on Cancer, the U.S. Environmental Protection or the National Toxicology Program. As a result we cannot classify these chemicals for cancer-causing effects.
Some alkylphenols can mimic the hormone estrogen. Exposure could potentially disrupt the body’s natural hormone signals that regulate reproduction and development. Nonylphenol and octylphenol have been found to cause estrogen-sensitive breast cancer cells to multiply in a test tube, and animal studies have found smaller testicles and decreased sperm counts in rats whose mothers were exposed to octylphenol in the womb.
Solutions
How to detect alkylphenols and alkylphenol ethoxylates
How to minimize exposure to alkylphenols and alkylphenol ethoxylates
Alternatives
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Hormonally Active Agents in the Environment. National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Committee on Hormonally Active Agents in the Environment, 1999.
Ammonia is a gas with an extremely sharp, irritating odor. Ammonia is formed naturally, but is manufactured as well. Most man-made ammonia is used to make fertilizer. Smaller amounts are used to manufacture synthetic fibers, plastics and explosives. Ammonia is also used as an ingredient in cleaning products and smelling salts. Natural ammonia is formed when manure, plants and animals break down. It is a source of much needed nitrogen for plants and animals.
Humans are regularly exposed to small amounts of ammonia in water, soil and air. This low-level ammonia exposure is not thought to cause long-term health hazards.
In larger quantities, such as those found in household cleaners, ammonia fumes can pose an immediate hazard to the lungs and skin. Ammonia can cause even greater damage if it is mixed with chlorine bleach (or cleaners containing bleach). This mixture forms highly poisonous chloramine gas that cause coughing, choking and lung damage.
Ammonia fumes can also react with nitrates in the environment to form ammonium nitrate particles, which can linger in the home in dust, carpets, curtains and upholstery.
Children are most likely to be exposed to ammonia in household cleaners. Without adequate ventilation, ammonia fumes can build and pose a greater danger. Children with asthma may be particularly sensitive to ammonia fumes.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, ammonia is Highly Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, ammonia is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), ammonia is Highly Toxic
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical may cause cancer. It is considered a Possible Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Asthma Trigger
Other
Ammonia fumes are very irritating and corrosive to the eyes, nose and airways. Fumes may cause a burning sensation, coughing, wheezing, shortness of breath, laryngitis, rhinitis and watery eyes, even at low levels. People with asthma or other respiratory problems may be especially sensitive to ammonia fumes, as may individuals with corneal disease, glaucoma, or severe liver damage.
Eye contact may cause severe eye burns, blindness, cataracts and glaucoma. High exposure to ammonia fumes may also cause temporary blindness and eye damage.
Skin contact with low ammonia concentrations may cause skin irritation; high concentrations will cause burns and open sores if not washed away quickly.
Breathing highly concentrated ammonia fumes may cause headache, loss of sense of smell, nausea, vomiting, increased heart rate, and high blood pressure. Breathing in very high levels may cause pulmonary edema, a medical emergency, with severe shortness of breath and a buildup of fluid in the lungs.
If swallowed in household cleaning products, may cause burns in the mouth, throat and stomach.
Repeated or prolonged exposure to high levels may damage the eyes, liver, kidneys, and lungs, and may cause bronchitis to develop, with cough, phlegm and shortness of breath.
How Exposures Occur
Naturally Occurring Ammonia
Everyone is regularly exposed to naturally occurring ammonia in air, food, soil and water. Such exposures occur at levels that are too low to pose any health hazard.
Cleaning Products
Children may be exposed to ammonia fumes that are strong enough to cause irritation when ammonia, or household cleaners containing ammonia (particularly glass, window, metal or oven cleaners), is used to clean the home. Exposure occurs from inhaling ammonia fumes, which can build up if the ammonia is not diluted with sufficient water or if ventilation does not prevent the build-up of fumes.
Children could also come into contact with ammonia as a result of accidental spills, skin contact or ingestion.
Cigarette Smoke
Children can inhale traces of ammonia when exposed to secondhand smoke.
Fertilizers
Children may be exposed to ammonia fumes when ammonia fertilizers are used on lawns or farms nearby. Skin contact could occur if they touch soil or grass where fertilizer has recently been applied; however, ammonia levels in soil decrease rapidly within a few days after application.
Animal Manure
Children may breathe ammonia fumes from decaying manure if they live near large-scale hog, chicken, or cattle farms.
Waste Sites and Industrial Spills
Children may be exposed to elevated levels of ammonia in the air, water and soil if they live near hazardous waste disposal sites, or near leaks and spills from production plants, storage facilities, pipelines, tank trucks and rail cars.
Significant Statistics
Ammonia ranks among the highest of all chemicals released into American waters, as reported to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Toxic Release Inventory, with 188 million pounds released to U.S. waterways between 1990 and 1994.
About 80% of man-made ammonia is used to make fertilizers. The remaining 20% is used in textiles, plastics, explosives, pulp and paper production, food and beverages, household cleaning products, refrigerants, and other products.
Ammonia is one of the primary gases released by animal manure “lagoons” on large-scale farms. The concentration of these gases, which result as animal waste breaks down, is toxic, oxygen consuming, and potentially explosive. People living close to giant hog operations have reported headaches, runny noses, sore throats, excessive coughing, respiratory problems, nausea, diarrhea, dizziness, burning eyes, depression and fatigue.
By volume, ammonia is the fourth largest industrial chemical produced. However, industrial ammonia production is dwarfed by the amount of ammonia produced naturally by the breakdown of organic matter in the environment.
Household ammonia contains 5-10% ammonia and is considered to be an irritant rather than a corrosive hazard, but even in low concentrations, the vapors can cause severe eye, lung, and skin irritation.
Ammonia has a very sharp, irritating odor, which you will probably smell before you are exposed to a concentration that may harm you. In fact, ammonia can be detected by its odor at concentrations about 10 times lower than the toxic threshold.
Read labels. Ammonia is found in household cleaning products, including glass cleaners, metal cleaners, wax removers and oven cleaners. Household ammonia usually contains 5-10% ammonia (diluted in water), but even this amount can be enough to cause severe respiratory irritation.
Any product containing 27-30% ammonia must carry the following health hazard warning: “POISON! DANGER! Corrosive alkaline solution. Causes burns to any area of contact. Harmful if swallowed, inhaled, or absorbed through skin.”
Searching for ammonia in the National Library of Medicine’s Household Products Database will show a list of brands that contain it.
How to minimize exposure to ammonia
If you or a family member has asthma or other respiratory illness, you should avoid using ammonia to clean your house as a precaution, if possible.
Choose cleaning products that contain the lowest percentage of ammonia (5% or less) you can find.
When using ammonia-based products:
-Keep children away from rooms where the products are used until the fumes have dissipated.
-Ventilate rooms well when cleaning with ammonia or ammonia-containing cleaning products by opening windows and using fans.
-Avoid skin and eye contact by wearing protective clothing, including rubber gloves, glasses or goggles, and long sleeves.
-NEVER mix products that contain ammonia with those that contain chlorine bleach!
-If symptoms develop from inhaling fumes, immediately discontinue use and go outside into fresh air.
-Always seal tightly and store any cleaning product out of reach of children.
Alternatives
There are many safe and effective cleaners that do not contain ammonia or other corrosive ingredients, such as chlorine, acids or lye. Some are available at natural foods stores and supermarkets. See The Cleaning Blues.
You may also make your own household cleaners with nontoxic ingredients such as vinegar, baking soda and lemon juice. See Recipes for Safer Cleaners.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Dickey, Philip. Safer Cleaning Products. Seattle: Washington Toxics Coalition.
arsenic compounds, such as chromated copper arsenate (CCA), arsenic pentoxide, calcium arsenate, lead arsenate, sodium arsenate, arsenic trioxide, potassium arsenate
Description
Arsenic is a naturally occurring element, considered a heavy metal. The pure form of arsenic is not commonly found in the environment. However, arsenic is found in naturally formed and man-made compounds.
About 90% of all arsenic produced is used as a preservative in wood (e.g., pressure-treated lumber). Treated wood (or pressure-treated wood) contains chromated copper arsenate (CCA), the most commonly used wood preservative. This green coloured treatment is used on wood destined for outdoor purposes, such as decks, fences, playground equipment, and residential construction.
Arsenic leaches from treated wood into soil. Children can be exposed by touching CCA surfaces or ingesting soil that surrounds the wood. Children may be more susceptible to arsenic than adults since they are less efficient at converting inorganic arsenic to the less harmful organic forms.
Manufacturers of pressure treated wood agreed in early 2002 to phaseout the use of CCA as a wood preservative by December 31, 2003. Nevertheless, any outdoor wood, and soil around it, should be considered suspect over the coming years.
Arsenic is also used in insecticides, weed killers, fungicides, glass production, semiconductors, to make metal alloys (used in lead-acid car batteries, for example), and some medications (mostly veterinary).
Various industries release arsenic into the air and groundwater, as well. These industries include mines and smelters, cotton gins, glass manufacturing operations, coal burning facilities, municipal incinerators and others. In addition, arsenic may leach from landfills that contain arsenic-laden ash produced by coal-burning power plants, treated wood, and other arsenic-containing products.
Home and agricultural fertilizers made with industrial and mining wastes (a fairly common practice and not regulated) often contains high levels of heavy metals, including arsenic. Some phosphate fertilzers contain arsenic. The heavy metals can be absorbed into food grown in soil contaminated by these fertilizers. Arsenic is also naturally present in very small quantities in food.
In some areas, where natural formations of arsenic exist, such as the western and southwestern United States and Alaska, drinking water may have relatively high arsenic concentrations.
In general, naturally occurring arsenic is usually found in the pentavalent form, which is less toxic than the trivalent form which humans add to the environment. (Arsenate is the form most prevalent in nature.)
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, arsenic is Very Highly Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, arsenic is Very Highly Toxic
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), arsenic is Highly Toxic
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
Suspected Endocrine Disruptor = May interfere with, mimic or block hormones
Other
Breathing high levels of inorganic arsenic can give you a sore throat or irritated lungs. Lower levels of arsenic can cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, decreased production of red and white blood cells, abnormal heart rhythm, blood vessel damage, and a “pins and needles” sensation in hands and feet. Skin contact may cause redness and swelling but does not appear to result in any immediate internal effects.
Chronic arsenic intoxication is characterized by fatigue and malaise. Disturbances of the gastrointestinal tract, anemia and other blood abnormalities, skin abnormalities including the appearance of dark and light spots on the skin, pale bands on the fingernails and toes, small “corns” on the palms, soles, and trunk (hyperkeratosis), and “pins and needles” sensation in hands and feet may ultimately occur. Elevated levels of arsenic in hair, nails, and urine may be present long after exposure has stopped.
Several studies suggest a link between arsenic exposure and type II diabetes. Arsenic may also have immunological and cardiovascular effects, including hypertension, coronary artery disease, peripheral vascular disease, and atherosclerosis.
Birth defects have been observed in animals exposed to inorganic arsenic. It is not known whether this can occur in humans. Children may be more susceptible to arsenic than adults since they are less efficient at converting inorganic arsenic to the less harmful organic forms.
Inorganic arsenic may increase the risk of lung, bladder, prostate, liver, kidney, and skin cancers (both melanoma and non-melanoma). Skin cancer may occur in combination with other cancers, such as liver angiosarcoma, intestinal, and urinary bladder cancers and meningioma, in some cases. The World Health Organization, the U.S. Department Of Health and Human Services, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and the National Toxicology Program consider inorganic arsenic a human carcinogen.
The symptoms of acute inorganic arsenic poisoning occurring as a consequence of accidental or intentional ingestion are burning and dryness of the throat and breathing passages, disturbance of the gastrointestinal tract, and muscle spasms; dizziness, delirium, and coma may occur. Swelling of the face and about the eyelids may also occur.
How Exposures Occur
Absorption Through Skin
More rarely, arsenic may be penetrate the skin after a child has touched pressure treated wood. Generally, skin contact does not result in internal effects.
Drinking Water
Children can ingest arsenic from contaminated drinking water, especially where arsenic is naturally found, such as the southwestern U.S, or near landfills and polluting facilities, such as mines and smelters, cotton gins, glass manufacturing operations or refineries.
Food
Children may consume residues of arsenic compounds through contamination of foods by pollution, pesticides or fertilizers, livestock residues (from medications and pesticidal treatments), or high levels of naturally occurring arsenic. The highest levels of arsenic are detected in seafood, poultry, meats (e.g., pork), mushrooms, salt, and grains. Chicken may contain significant arsenic contamination because chicken feed is often supplemented with arsenic-based drugs to control intestinal parasites. One study found arsenic levels three to four times higher in chicken than in other meat and poultry. Generally seafood contains the organic form of arsenic, which is less toxic.
In the Womb
Arsenic can cross the placenta to the developing embryo/fetus. Arsenic is found at low levels in breast milk. However, the benefits for babies from breast feeding outweigh the risks of arsenic exposure. Breastfed babies are healthier than those who are bottle-fed; they experience fewer allergies, respiratory illnesses, and skin problems. In its 1997 policy statement, Breastfeeding and the Use of Human Milk, the American Academy of Pediatrics highly recommends breast feeding for all infants for one year.
Ingestion of Treated Wood or Contaminated Soil
Children can absorb arsenic by chewing on treated wood. Children may ingest arsenic after touching pressure treated wood and putting their hands in their mouths.
Arsenic in treated wood will leach into surrounding soil. Children may swallow the contaminated soil. They can also be exposed by touching the soil and later putting their hands in their mouths.
Some areas of the U.S. contain naturally high levels of arsenic. Children may be exposed to arsenic by hand-to-mouth activity, or from eating dirt.
Inhalation
It is possible for children to breathe in arsenic from air, particular near facilities that release arsenic, or when arsenic-treated lumber is burned, or from sawdust when arsenic-treated lumber is cut.
Significant Statistics
At least 11 million people in the U.S. currently drink water contaminated with arsenic at levels above 10 ppb, according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
Arsenic has been found in at least 1,014 of the 1,598 current or former sites on the National Priorities List (NPL), the most serious hazardous waste sites in the nation identified by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
In a recent test tube study, researchers found that low levels of arsenic not thought to be toxic can disrupt the endocrine system. The levels causing the disruption were comparable to current drinking water standard of 10 micrograms per liter (10 ppb).
U.S. industrial facilities released over 12 million pounds of arsenic and arsenic compounds into the environment in 1999, according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Toxic Release Inventory.
Wood in decks, patio furniture, children’s playground equipment, benches and picnic tables likely contain CCA.
Manufacturers of wood treated with arsenic compounds have been asked to add warning labels to their products and to provide safety information through a toll-free consumer hotline, a web site and an improved consumer fact sheet.
If you have recently purchased treated wood without labeling indicating the type of preservatives used, contact and ask the manufacturer about what was used. Wood that has been pressure treated has a greenish tint (although this can fade over time).
Read all labels on pesticides and wood products. Ask manufacturers or applicators for Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) on the products used for safety information about ingredients. You can also find MSDS sheets at Vermont Safety Information Resources Inc.
The Safe Drinking Water Act requires that community water systems monitor arsenic levels, and make public when levels exceed the set Maximum Contamination Level (MCL) of 50 parts per billion (ppb). EPA has revised the standard, ordering that it fall to 10 ppb by 2006.
Community water systems are required to produce annual consumer confidence reports and mail them to every water customer.
If your water source is a well, your water is not monitored for contaminants as is required for public water supplies by the Safe Drinking Water Act. Private testing of the water is necessary.
Even if your water comes from a community water system, contaminant levels can vary from house to house. You can have your water tested by sending samples to a certified laboratory.
You can search for water quality reports from your water provider, obtain information on well water testing and find a list of state-certified drinking water laboratories at the U.S. EPA’s Office of Water’s website or call the EPA’s Safe Drinking Water Hotline, 800-426-4791.
Note: If home tests reveal high levels, follow up with a professional assessment. An industrial hygienist or environmental laboratory (listed in the yellow pages under “laboratory” or “environmental”)
Block access to areas below treated decks so that children and animals cannot enter.
Avoid sanding or finishing treated wood to avoid dispersing arsenic in soil and the air. If you do use arsenic-treated wood in home projects, you should wear dust masks, gloves, and protective clothing to decrease exposure to sawdust. Always work with this wood outdoors, and DO NOT ALLOW CHILDREN TO ENTER THE AREA!
Do not use acid washes or brighteners on treated wood, as doing so will accelerate the release of arsenic from the wood.
Do not allow food to contact treated wood.
Do not burn treated wood or compost sawdust, chips or small wood scraps derived from treated wood.
To dispose of treated wood properly, contact your local sanitation department for details.
If you live in an area with high levels of arsenic in water or soil, you should use cleaner sources of water and limit contact with soil (e.g., keep children away from soil, wash their hands frequently, plant groundcover, clean and dust your house frequently, install an air filter).
If your drinking water contains arsenic at levels higher than 10 parts per billion, you can improve it by installing a water filter. For more information, see Water Filters.
Eat a healthy diet. There is some evidence to suggest that people who do not eat enough protein and other nutrients may not convert the more harmful inorganic form of arsenic into the less toxic organic form as readily.
Alternatives
Try to minimize use of wood in locations where rot or insect infestation is likely. Look for non-wood solutions, such as recycled plastic lumber, metal and concrete.
When it’s not possible to avoid wood, look for naturally rot-resistant species, such as cedar, redwood, douglas fir, ponderosa pine, and the tropical wood purple heart. Black locust is a suitable replacement for some uses, according to Organic Gardening Magazine (July/August 1997). But try to obtain wood (Particularly redwood and cedar) that has been harvested from a certified, sustainably managed forest, or re-use it or use reclaimed wood. See Independently Certified Wood.
When you must use treated wood, look for wood products that have been treated with alternatives to CCA, such as ACQ Preserve, which is made of ammonium copper quaternary. Treatment with boron or borate preserves wood can be far less hazardous, but it is not as long-lasting or effective as other treatments. Borate preservatives may leach out of wood in wet conditions, although they are effective for treatment against termites when wood will not be exposed to weather.
The Healthy Building Network has a database of distributors that carry safer products.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Chromated Copper Arsenate (CCA) and Its Use as a Wood Preservative. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Pesticide Programs.
Arsenic is combined with oxygen, chlorine, and sulfur to form inorganic arsenic compounds. Arsenic in animals and plants combines with carbon and hydrogen to form organic arsenic compounds, which are less toxic than inorganic forms of arsenic.
Inorganic arsenic compounds can no longer be used in agriculture. However, organic arsenicals, namely cacodylic acid, disodium methylarsenate (DSMA), and monosodium methylarsenate (MSMA) are still used as
pesticides, principally on cotton.
All of the arsenic used in the U.S. is imported; it is no longer produced in the U.S.
On February 12, 2002, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency announced a voluntary decision by industry to move consumer use of treated lumber products away from a variety of pressure-treated wood that contains arsenic by December 31, 2003, in favor of new alternative wood preservatives. This transition
affects virtually all residential uses of wood treated with chromated copper arsenate, also known as CCA, including wood used in play-structures, decks, picnic tables, landscaping timbers, residential fencing, patios and walkways/boardwalks. By January 2004, EPA will not allow CCA products for any of these residential uses.
Manufacturers to Use New Wood Preservatives, Replacing Most Residential Uses of CCA. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Pesticide Programs, February 12, 2002.
Asbestos, from the Greek word meaning inextinguishable, refers to a group of six different naturally occurring mineral fibers similar to fiberglass. Asbestos is strong, flexible, resistant to heat and chemical corrosion, and insulates well. These features led to the use of asbestos in up to 3000 consumer products before government agencies began a phase out in the 1970s because of its health hazards. Asbestos has been used in insulation, roofing, siding, vinyl floor tiles, fireproofing materials, texturized paint and soundproofing materials, heating appliances (such as clothes dryers and ovens), fire-proof gloves and ironing boards. Asbestos continues to be used in some products, such as brake pads. Other mineral products, such as talc and vermiculite, can be contaminated with asbestos. Concern about asbestos relates to airborne fibers from products and building materials that are old, damaged, or decaying. Children’s exposure to asbestos is especially concerning because early and long-term exposure increases risk of developing lung disease and cancer. Asbestos is not hazardous when intact, but if the asbestos is damaged or degraded, it may become airborne where it may be inhaled. Smoking greatly increases the likelihood that a person exposed to asbestos will develop lung cancer.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, asbestos is Not Available
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, asbestos is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), asbestos is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
Other
Chronic exposures to low levels of asbestiform fibers or occupational exposure can cause asbestosis (scarring of the lungs) and pulmonary fibrosis.
Cancers. Chronic exposures to low levels of asbestiform fibers or occupational exposure can cause lung cancer and mesothelioma (cancer of the lining of the chest and abdomen). There is some evidence indicating a slight increase in gastrointestinal cancer, possibly from ingesting asbestos.
Shortness of breath, cough, reduced respiratory functioning.
How Exposures Occur
Air
Children can breathe asbestos fibers that become airborne when asbestos-containing products are damaged or are disturbed. Fibers usually enter the air from old insulation, floor and roof tiles, roof shingles, cement, clutches and brakes on cars and trucks, vinyl flooring.
Outdoors, asbestos-related industries may release asbestos fibers into the air during manufacturing.
Vermiculite
Asbestos may contaminate vermiculite, a mineral used as a soil additive and in some insulation, which may be released into the air. Because of the low level of asbestos in vermiculite, the risks associated with household use of potting soil is considered negligible. Those who handle vermiculite every day, however, are at much greater risk.
Water
Drinking water may contain asbestos fibers due to erosion from natural sources, and corrosion from asbestos-cement pipes and roofing materials.
Work-Related Exposure
Workers who come into contact with asbestos may unknowingly bring the fibers home on their clothes. The fibers may be released during laundering or other activities.
Significant Statistics
Asbestos containing materials are present in most of America’s approximately 107,000 primary and secondary schools and 733,000 public and commercial buildings, according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Between 1940 and 1980, an estimated 27 million Americans were exposed to asbestos in the workplace. Asbestos fibers cling to clothing and can be taken home.
Over 18 million pounds of asbestos were released into the U.S. environment from industrial facilities in 1999, according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Toxic Release Inventory.
"Asbestos, CAS No. 1332-21-4." Tenth Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program, December 2002. http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/roc/tenth/profiles/s016asbe.pdf
Asbestos use has declined dramatically in the U.S., from 1.8 billion pounds in 1973 to 33 million pounds in 2000.
"Asbestos, CAS No. 1332-21-4." Tenth Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program, December 2002.http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/roc/tenth/profiles/s016asbe.pdf
Solutions
How to detect asbestos
Visual Inspection: Asbestos was once used in many products. If you suspect a product contains asbestos or are just not sure, treat it as if it contains asbestos.
Materials in good condition should be left undisturbed. However, if a renovation is planned, sampling and testing of suspected asbestos-containing building materials is advisable.
If you see signs of asbestos deterioration, such as gray dust near degraded insulation, tiles, texturized paint or other home building material, contact an asbestos professional to have samples collected and tested (see below).
Old appliances, such as stoves, clothes dryers and hair dryers, may contain asbestos. Contact the manufacturer to find out.
EPA also has a list of products that may contain asbestos.
Sampling and Testing: An EPA-approved testing lab can determine whether samples contain asbestos. You can obtain a list of these labs from the Laboratory Accreditation Administration of the National Institute for Standards and Technology, 301-975-4016. Or contact your state or local health department for information on local professionals.
Do not collect samples yourself! Collection of samples should be left to professionals as incorrect collection may cause asbestos to become airborne, increasing exposure.
In Drinking Water: Asbestos is regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act. This law requires that community water systems monitor asbestos levels, and make public when levels exceed the set Maximum Contamination Level (MCL). The MCL for asbestos has also been set at 7 million fibers per liter of water.
Community water systems are required to produce annual consumer confidence reports and mail them to every water customer.
If your water source is a well, your water is not monitored for contaminants as is required for public water supplies by the Safe Drinking Water Act. Private testing of the water is necessary.
Even if your water comes from a community water system, contaminant levels can vary from house to house. You can have your water tested by sending samples to a certified laboratory.
You can search for water quality reports from your water provider, obtain information on well water testing and find a list of state-certified drinking water laboratories at the U.S. EPA’s Office of Water’s website or call the EPA’s Safe Drinking Water Hotline, 800-426-4791.
How to minimize exposure to asbestos
Intact or undisturbed asbestos should be left that way. Do not attempt to remove it as the fibers may be released in the process.
Clean-Up and Repair: Do not sweep, dust, or vacuum where asbestos fibers may be present. Either carefully collect the dust with a wet rag or mop, or bring in a trained professional to do the clean-up. See Resources below for more information on how to find one. To prevent further release of fibers from deteriorating asbestos-containing products, professionals can seal the material to bind the fibers together. Alternately, the material can be covered by an additional protective substance to avoid fiber release. Since exposure to asbestos always presents a health risk, all repairs should be done by a professional.
Removal: This should be considered the last option, as it is the most risky and expensive. Since exposure to asbestos always presents a health risk, only professionals should engage in asbestos removal. To find asbestos professionals, contact your local or state health department. Or see Resources below for more information on how to find one.
Alternatives
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Asbestos in the Home: A Homeowner's Guide. Consumer Product Safety Commission, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and the American Lung Association.
http://www.cpsc.gov/cpscpub/pubs/453.html
Asbestos-Contaminated Vermiculite Fact Sheet. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, August 2001.
Studies have not shown a connection between asbestos exposure and developmental disorders in dietary
exposure, and there are no known studies of the developmental or reproductive effects of asbestos inhalation in animals or humans.
In May, 2000, asbestos was found in some brands of crayons, due to the presence in the talc used in the manufacturing process. Though the risk is not great, use of crayons could potentially release asbestos fibers into the air. Additionally, children could eat them.
There are no known studies of the developmental or reproductive effects of asbestos inhalation in animals or humans.
Aspartame is a sugar substitute widely used in sugar-free drinks, candies and desserts and in tabletop sweeteners. It is made of two amino acids - aspartic acid and phenylalanine - and breaks down into these two components and methanol upon digestion.
Aspartame has been, and remains, controversial since its approval as a food additive by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1981. The FDA maintains that aspartame is one of the most thoroughly studied food additives the agency has ever approved and is safe. However, some consumers have reported symptoms ranging from headaches to gastrointestinal problems from aspartame.
Aspartame is marketed under the names Equal® and Nutrasweet®. Some children’s sugar-free snacks and beverages may contain aspartame.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, aspartame is Slightly Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, aspartame is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), aspartame is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is considered an Unclassifiable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Other
Most scientific studies have found no symptoms consistently linked to aspartame exposure, and no cause-and-effect relationship between aspartame ingestion and any single health effect has been scientifically established. However, a range of adverse effects, including headaches, dizziness, depression or mood changes, gastrointestinal problems, alterations in menstrual patterns, and allergic skin rashes, have been reported by some consumers.
One study found that people suffering from depression or other mood disorders may be especially sensitive to aspartame, which caused their symptoms to become more severe.
An amino acid component of aspartame - phenylalanine - can cause neurotoxic effects and brain damage in people with the genetic disease phenylketonuria (PKU), with advanced liver disease, and pregnant women with hyperphenylalanine (high levels of phenylalanine in blood), who cannot effectively metabolize phenylalanine. All products containing aspartame must include a warning to phenylketonurics that the sweetener contains phenylalanine. About 1 in every 16,000 people has PKU. All newborn babies are tested for it, and those with the disease are put on a special diet without phenylalanine.
How Exposures Occur
Artifically Sweetened Beverages and Foods
Children may ingest aspartame in artificially sweetened (labeled as low-calorie, diet or sugar-free) soft drinks, teas, powdered drink mixes, hot cocoa mixes, frozen desserts, puddings, yogurts, gelatins, chewing gum, breath mints and chewable vitamins.
Significant Statistics
More than 5,000 products worldwide contain Nutrasweet® (aspartame) sweetener.
According to a 1998 survey by the Calorie Control Council, 144 million American adults regularly consume low-calorie, sugar-free products such as artificially sweetened sodas and desserts.
Read labels on sweetened processed foods, drinks, drink mixes, yogurts, candies, gum, and tabletop sweeteners. Aspartame (or Nutrasweet) is most likely to appear in products that are labeled as diet, sugar-free, or low-calorie. Products containing aspartame are also required to carry a label to warn people with phenylketonuria (PKU) that the product contains phenylalanine.
How to minimize exposure to aspartame
Do not allow infants and children to consume products containing aspartame. According to the NutraSweet company, the primary manufacturer or aspartame, “aspartame is not intended for use by infants and very young children” because they need ample calories for rapid growth.
If you experience headaches, nausea, dizziness, depression or any other adverse reactions after ingesting aspartame-containing foods or drinks, avoid them. If your symptoms consistently coincide with aspartame ingestion,and you feel certain there is a connection, you may want to report your symptoms to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. You can do this by contacting your regional consumer complaint coordinator.
Because aspartame contains phenylalanine, anyone with the rare disease phenylketonuria (PKU), with advanced liver disease, and pregnant women with hyperphenylalanine (high levels of phenylalanine in blood) should avoid aspartame to minimize the risk of brain damage.
Alternatives
Naturally sweet fruits and fruit juices provide essential vitamins and minerals. For dieters attempting to control body weight, these are a much more nutritious, less risky sugar substitute than artificial sweeteners.
Honey and sugar have been used safely for centuries, although they promote tooth decay and provide empty calories that can contribute to obesity if consumed in excess. Ingest in moderation and exercise regularly to prevent weight gain and the longterm health problems associated with it.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Chemical Cuisine: CSPI's Guide to Food Additives. Center for Science in the Public Interest.
http://www.cspinet.org/reports/chemcuisine.htm
Other government agencies
U.S. Food and Drug Administration
Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition
5100 Paint Branch Parkway
College Park, MD 20740-3835
1-888-INFO-FDA (1-888-463-6332)
A 1996 article by John W. Olney that suggested a link between rising brain cancer rates and the introduction of aspartame gained significant public attention. However, this conclusion was refuted by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and the National Cancer Institute, who claim that brain cancer rates started rising eight years before aspartame reached the market. Olney also pointed to a study in laboratory rats that found a high incidence of brain tumors in exposed rats compared to unexposed (control) rats. Although an independent board of scientists said that “aspartame, at least when administered in the huge quantities employed in these studies, may contribute to the development of brain tumors” and urged that the study be repeated, FDA disagreed, arguing that the apparent increase was due to an unexpectedly low number of tumors in the untreated rats (controls), citing evidence from other untreated rats. A study on a different strain of rat did not find any evidence of brain tumors.
Atrazine is a pre- and post-emergent herbicide in the triazine family (which also includes simazine and propazine). Atrazine is used to kill both broadleaf and grassy weeds. It is the second most widely used herbicide in the United States, after glyphosate. Atrazine is mainly used in agriculture. The greatest use of atrazine by far is on corn.
Besides corn, its primary uses are on sugarcane and on residential lawns in Florida and the Southeast. Other agricultural applications include sorghum, as well as minor crops such as guava, hay, macadamia nuts, pasture grasses, and winter wheat. Other non-agricultural uses include golf courses, rangeland, landscape maintenance, ornamental trees, forests, Christmas trees, recreational areas, right-of-ways, and industrial areas. Currently, the heaviest atrazine uses per unit area occur in portions of Delaware, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, and Nebraska.
Once in the environment, atrazine is slow to break down in soil and water. As a result, it is frequently detected as a contaminant in streams, rivers, lakes and drinking water, particularly in the Midwest. Contamination is usually highest in agricultural areas in the spring, when atrazine use peaks and large amounts of the herbicide run off in rain into surface water.
Due to health and environmental concerns, several European countries have banned atrazine. The European Union has announced it will ban atrazine in 2005.
Due to its ability to disrupt the endocrine system and interfere with hormones, atrazine has been linked to limb deformities, abnormal sexual changes, weakened immune systems, and declining populations of frogs and amphibians. While atrazine can cause sexual abnormalities in several species, frogs are especially sensitive. Scientists have found that frogs exposed to atrazine have multiple, mixed gonads and become demasculinized—at levels 10,000-30,000 times lower than levels previously thought to be non-toxic to frogs. Although counterintuitive, there is a body of evidence showing that atrazine and other hormonally active compounds are most damaging at trace concentrations.
Infants and children are primarily exposed through drinking water. They could aslo be exposed during and after applications as the result of drift of the pesticide on air currents or from pesticide deposited in soil.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, atrazine is Moderately Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, atrazine is Moderately Toxic
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), atrazine is Moderately Toxic
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is considered an Unclassifiable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Suspected Endocrine Disruptor = May interfere with, mimic or block hormones
Other
Research in the midwestern United States shows that men with elevated exposures to atrazine, alachlor and diazinon are much more likely to have reduced sperm quality. Reduced sperm counts, decreased sperm motility, and prostate inflammation have been observed in male laboratory rats exposed to atrazine.
Short-term exposure to high levels of atrazine may cause irritation of eyes, skin and mucous membranes. High doses in animals cause damage to the liver, kidney, and heart.
One study found an association between maternal exposure to triazine herbicides in drinking water and increased incidence of developmental effects in newborns, including low birth weight. Some studies have found increased rates of pre-term delivery in couples living on farms that use atrazine.
Atrazine caused breast tumors in one species of rat, but not in other species tested in the laboratory. Some epidemiological studies have suggested possible links between atrazine exposure and other types of cancer, but no cause-effect relationship has been established. Some scientists believe that atrazine does not cause cancer directly, but that exposure before birth can prolong and/or increase the susceptibility to cancer-causing chemicals by altering hormonal signals and the development of breast tissue and other reproductive tissues.
How Exposures Occur
Drinking Water
Children can ingest atrazine from contaminated drinking water, particularly in areas where corn is grown. Atrazine is one of the most commonly detected pesticides in drinking water, especially in spring, when agricultural runoff peaks. It can enter surface waters through runoff and rain, in which atrazine collects due to evaporation. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has identified 200 community water systems where atrazine levels have approached or exceeded EPA’s Maximum Contaminant Level of 3 parts per billion. Water from private wells may also be contaminated where atrazine is used. Pregnant women who consume water contaminated with atrazine may expose their babies.
Pesticide Application and Drift
Children can inhale atrazine when spray drifts from neighboring corn, sorghum or sugarcane fields or golf courses, or when it is being applied on home lawns and gardens. They can touch atrazine on lawns that have recently been sprayed.
Soil
Children may be exposed to atrazine by digging or playing in soil that has atrazine in it. Atrazine may persist in soil from several months up to a year after it has been applied.
Occupational
Children of farm workers and pesticide applicators are exposed to higher amounts of atrazine and other pesticides, which can enter the home on clothing, shoes and other items. Occupational exposures of parents before and during pregnancy may impact their babies.
House Dust
Low levels of atrazine have been detected in carpet and house dust in homes in the Midwest, where atrazine use is highest.
Food
Atrazine residues are occasionally found in food samples, but at low levels beneath those that the EPA considers a health concern.
Significant Statistics
Atrazine is one of the most widely used herbicide in the U.S. Between 74-80 million pounds of atrazine (active ingredient) are used each year in the U.S.
Pesticide Industry Sales and Usage: 200-2001 Market Estimates. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic Substances, May 2004.http://www.epa.gov/oppbead1/pestsales/index.htm
Atrazine is removed from air mainly by rainfall, and can be blown on dust particles long distances from where it is applied. Atrazine has been found in rainwater more than 180 miles from the nearest application area.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has identified 200 community water systems where atrazine has been detected at levels that approached or exceeded the agency’s Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL). Of the 200, eight community water systems have annual average readings that significantly exceed the MCL.
Read labels and ask lawn care professionals what they plan on using in and around your home. Ask them for a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS), which lists safety information and active ingredients, for the products used. You can also find out if atrazine is an ingredient in a pesticide product through the Pesticide Action Network Pesticides Database. Or, search for atrazine in the National Library of Medicine’s Household Products Database to find a list of brands that contain it.
Atrazine is regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act. This law requires that community water systems monitor atrazine levels, and inform the public when levels exceed the set Maximum Contamination Level (MCL). The MCL for atrazine is 3 parts per billion.
If your water source is a well, your water is not monitored for contaminants as is required for public water supplies by the Safe Drinking Water Act. Private testing of your water is necessary.
Even if your water comes from a community water system, contaminant levels can vary from house to house. You can have your water tested by sending samples to a certified laboratory. For more information on how to test your water, see Safe Drinking Water: Testing Your Water.
You can search for water quality reports from your water provider, obtain information on well water testing and find a list of state-certified drinking water laboratories at the U.S. EPA’s Office of Water’s website or call the EPA’s Safe Drinking Water Hotline, 800-426-4791.
Home water testing kits are available for atrazine and simazine for $15-20. You can find them on the Internet and in some hardware stores. Since atrazine is applied in late winter and early spring, this is the best time to test.
How to minimize exposure to atrazine
Contact your local sanitation department or hazardous waste disposal program to find out how to dispose of pesticides properly. Earth 911 lists hazardous waste disposal sites by zip code, 1-800-CLEANUP.
To avoid tracking pesticides into the house, where they can become embedded in carpets, always remove shoes at the door or wipe shoes on door mats before entering your home. To minimize exposure to pesticides and other pollutants that collect in household dust, vacuum carpets, mop floors, and damp-wipe dusty surfaces weekly, especially in homes with small children, who spend much of their time on the floor.
If testing of your water reveals high levels of atrazine, you can filter your tap water. Some, but not all, carbon-based water filters, commonly available in grocery stores as pitchers or faucet mounts, can remove atrazine from drinking water; check product labels for lists of contaminants removed.
Pregnant women and nursing mothers should only drink tested tap water or filtered water in high risk areas (see above).
To avoid exposing infants, feed only breast milk or a formula mixed with purified water.
Children in agricultural regions should avoid playing, digging or swimming in waterways near fields that have recently been sprayed.
Alternatives
Adopt Integrated Pest Management, instead of resorting to herbicides for weed removal. For information on IPM, see Pest Control without Pesticides.
Remove garden weeds by hand; mulch the soil around garden plants to prevent weeds from sprouting. Diversify landscaping to reduce turf grass. See also How to Kill Weeds Without Herbicides.
Maintaining a healthy lawn is your best defense against weedy invaders. For more information about how to accomplish this, consult the resources below.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Fagin, Dan, Marianne Lavelle, and the Center for Public Integrity. Toxic Deception: How the Chemical Industry Manipulates Science, Bends the Law, and Endangers Your Health. Secaucus, New Jersey: Birch Lane Press, 1996.
Johnson, David. Weed Management for the Lawn and Garden. Washington Toxics Coalition, May 2000.
Benfluralin is an herbicide used primarily on turf, including lawns and golf courses, mostly by lawn care operators,to control grasses and other weeds. It is also used to control weeds in ornamental plants, lettuce, alfalfa, clover, birdsfoot trefoil, nonbearing fruit and nut trees, nonbearing berries, nonbearing vineyards, along rights of way (including utility substations, highway guardrails, and sign posts), fence rows and hedgerows, and Christmas tree plantations.
Children may ingest benfluralin through hand-to-mouth or object-to-mouth activity on treated turf, or through ingestion of soil or possibly even granules of benfluralin. They could absorb the chemical through skin if playing in treated grass soon after application. They may also inhale the herbicide during and immediately after application.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, benfluralin is Slightly Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, benfluralin is Moderately Toxic
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), benfluralin is Moderately Toxic
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is considered an Unclassifiable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Other
Animals that have ingested benfluralin have demonstrated chronic (non-cancer) effects. Benfluralin was added to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Toxic Release Inventory because of its chronic effects on blood and on the liver in animal studies.
Benfluralin is a skin sensitizer and can be irritating to skin and eyes.
Solutions
How to detect benfluralin
How to minimize exposure to benfluralin
Alternatives
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Other government agencies
Nonprofit organizations
Other websites
benzene
Description
Benzene is a sweet-smelling chemical in the aromatic hydrocarbon class and a volatile organic compound (VOC), which easily releases fumes. It is manufactured in large quantities primarily for industrial uses.
Most benzene is produced for use as a building block in the manufacture of a number of products, such as medicinal and industrial chemicals, plastics, rubber, resins, synthetic fabrics, dyes, detergents and explosives.
Generally, people are exposed to benzene from tobacco smoke, gasoline and automobile exhaust. Benzene is also used as a solvent in waxes, resins, paints, inks and some craft supplies.
However, benzene is not a common ingredient in consumer products today. Products containing more than 5% benzene must be labeled. Paint thinners containing more than 10% of petroleum distillates must be packaged according to regulated safety requirements.
Benzene is produced naturally by volcanoes and forest fires.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, benzene is Very Highly Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, benzene is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), benzene is Very Highly Toxic
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
Neurotoxin = Can harm brain and central nervous system
Other
Cancer, particularly leukemia and other cancers of the blood and blood-producing organs, such as multiple myeloma.
Decrease in red blood cells leading to anemia; bone marrow damage, including myelodysplastic syndromes; excessive bleeding; immune system depression; drying and scaling of skin.
Effects on the central nervous system ranging from drowsiness, dizziness and headache to loss of consciousness. Death may result from respiratory failure due to central nervous system depression.
Chromosomal damage.
In test animals, benzene inhalation during pregnancy has caused fetal death at high doses.
How Exposures Occur
Automobile Exhaust
Children can inhale benzene from exhaust fumes in high-traffic areas.
Gasoline
Children may inhale gasoline fumes at filling stations. They may also be exposed in home garages due to fumes released from gas in fuel tanks. If they touch the gasoline, benzene may be absorbed through skin.
Household
Some household automotive and industrial cleaning products may contain small amounts of benzene, and emissions have been detected from some carpet glues, textured carpets and rugs, and furniture waxes.
Tobacco Smoke
Children may inhale benzene fumes found in secondhand tobacco smoke.
Water
Children may ingest benzene in contaminated drinking. Benzene may also be absorbed through their skin while showering or bathing in contaminated water.
Significant Statistics
Tobacco smoke accounts for more than 50% of the public’s exposure to benzene.
National Primary Drinking Water Regulations: Consumer Factsheet on Benzene. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water, Ground Water and Drinking Water, Updated April 12, 2001. http://www.epa.gov/safewater/dwh/c-voc/benzene.html
Half the U.S. population is exposed to benzene from industrial releases, and virtually everyone is exposed via gasoline, according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
“Benzene, CAS No. 71-43-2: Known to be a Human Carcinogen.” Tenth Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program, December 2002.http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/roc/tenth/profiles/s019benz.pdf
Benzene is one of the top twenty highest production volume chemicals in the nation. Its annual production in the U.S. increased from 1.6 billion gallons in 1980 to 2.3 billion gallons in 1997.
“Benzene, CAS No. 71-43-2: Known to be a Human Carcinogen.” Tenth Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program, December 2002.http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/roc/tenth/profiles/s019benz.pdf
Approximately 495 million tons of benzene are released into the U.S. environment every year from pharmaceutical, plastic, resin and rubber manufacturing plants, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency estimates.
“Benzene, CAS No. 71-43-2: Known to be a Human Carcinogen.” Tenth Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program, December 2002.http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/roc/tenth/profiles/s019benz.pdf
Solutions
How to detect benzene
Benzene is regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act. This law requires that community water systems monitor benzene levels, and make public when levels exceed the set Maximum Contamination Level (MCL). The MCL for benzene is 5 parts per billion.
Community water systems are required to produce annual consumer confidence reports and mail them to every water customer.
If your water source is a well, your water is not monitored for contaminants as is required for public water supplies by the Safe Drinking Water Act. Private testing of the water is necessary.
Even if your water comes from a community water system, contaminant levels can vary from house to house. You can have your water tested by sending samples to a certified laboratory.
You can search for water quality reports from your water provider, obtain information on well water testing and find a list of state-certified drinking water laboratories at the U.S. EPA’s Office of Water’s website or call the EPA’s Safe Drinking Water Hotline, 800-426-4791.
How to minimize exposure to benzene
Reduce your children’s exposure to secondhand cigarette smoke. Make your home a smoke-free zone.
Do not use solvent-containing products such as paints, paint thinners, harsh cleaning products, adhesives, and sealants around children. When using them, follow directions
carefully and provide lots of ventilation. Seal these products tightly and keep out of reach of children when not in use.
Avoid operating small household combustion engines, such as lawnmowers, in enclosed spaces like garages or workshops. Start them outdoors.
Alternatives
Choose least-toxic, low-or no-VOC, or water-based paints, sealants, paint thinners, adhesives and cleaning products.
Service stations with plastic vapor-recovery boot nozzles on their gas pumps release less benzene into the air during filling. These accordion-like covers remain over the opening of the gas tank so that fumes are unable to escape.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
“Solvents: All-Purpose Poisons.” Rachel’s Environment and Health News,No. 647 (April 22, 1999).
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, benzophenone is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), benzophenone is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
Other
Solutions
How to detect benzophenone
How to minimize exposure to benzophenone
Alternatives
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Other government agencies
Nonprofit organizations
Other websites
bisphenol-A (BPA)
Description
Bisphenol-A is the building block of polycarbonate plastic, a hard plastic used to make numerous consumer products, including most baby bottles and 5-gallon water bottles. Bisphenol-A is also used in epoxy resins, in the plastic lining of some food cans, in some dental sealants, and as an additive in other consumer products.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, bisphenol-A (BPA) is Very Highly Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, bisphenol-A (BPA) is Very Highly Toxic
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), bisphenol-A (BPA) is Highly Toxic
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is considered an Unclassifiable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Suspected Endocrine Disruptor = May interfere with, mimic or block hormones
Other
Damage to male reproductive organs in test animals: Male laboratory animals exposed to low levels of bisphenol-A in the womb had enlarged prostate weight as adults, shrunken epididymides (sperm-carrying ducts), and reduced sperm counts.
Early puberty and 20% increase in body weight in female laboratory mice exposed to bisphenol-A in the womb, and increased body weight in mice of both genders exposed as embryos. In mice, exposure to low levels of bisphenol-A has also induced aneuploidy, an error in cell division that causes miscarriages and birth defects, including Down Syndrome, in humans.
How Exposures Occur
Baby bottles
Bisphenol-A can migrate into infant formula from polycarbonate plastic baby bottles when heated, particularly from older, worn or scratched bottles.
Canned food
Bisphenol-A may leach from the plastic inner lining in some food cans into the food or liquid containing the food.
Dental sealants
Several studies have shown that some dental sealants and composite materials used to fill cavities may release bisphenol-A and related chemicals. It is possible that children may be exposed to bisphenol-A from the application of these dental materials. However, more study is required to determine if this route of exposure is of concern.
Some plastic kitchenware
Some clear plastic spill-proof cups and cutlery (forks, knives, and spoons) are made of polycarbonate. Hot and fatty foods or liquids may dissolve traces of bisphenol-A into the food.
Water bottles
Five-gallon polycarbonate plastic water jugs, used in dispensers, may leach traces of bisphenol-A into stored water.
Significant Statistics
On average, humans ingest approximately 6.3 micrograms per day of bisphenol-A from the linings of food cans.
Clear, untinted plastic baby bottles and children�s training cups are usually polycarbonate. As of February 2001, these included Avent bottles and cups; Evenflo clear, untinted bottles; Gerber clear bottles, and Looney Tunes� and Suzie�s Zoo� spill-proof cups; Playtex bottles and Cherub� juice and trainer cups Sassy MAM�, 3-step bottles The First Years� bottles and Peek-a-Boo� cups, Tupperware� bottles.
For other brands, contact the manufacturer to ask if the cup is polycarbonate.
The #7 recycling code on the bottom of some plastic containers, such as large water bottles used in water dispensers, indicate that they are made of polycarbonate.
How to minimize exposure to bisphenol-A (BPA)
As a precaution, discard polycarbonate baby bottles, especially those that are worn or scratched. Also discard plastic bottles that cannot be identified.
Alternatives
Choose baby bottles and spill-proof cups made of glass or polyethylene (#1,#2,#4 recycling symbols), or polypropylene (#5).
Evenflo makes glass bottles which should be available at large chain stores.
Non-polycarbonate plastic bottles and cups include: Evenflo’s colored and opaque pastel plastic bottles, Gerber colored bottles, Fun Grips� and ‘Lil Sport� spill-proof cups, Stroll ‘n Snack� cups.
Choose fresh, frozen and dried foods over those that are canned.
As a precaution, avoid dental sealants for children�s baby teeth, which will fall out within a few years anyway. Instead, teach your kids good dental habits of brushing and flossing regularly, especially after sweets.
Instead of relying on bottled water, which may be packaged in polycarbonate plastic, first test your tap water to find out if you need an alternative to tap water.
Bromethalin is a restricted use rodenticide used in and around buildings and sewers, and inside transportation and cargo vehicles. Bromethalin poisons the nervous system by blocking nerve activity, which leads to death. It is extremely toxic—only a single dose of bromethalin is needed to cause death, unlike other rodent poisons, such as diphacinone and warfarin, which are anticoagulants (blood thinners) that work over time.
Bromethalin is frequently swallowed by children accidentally. The brightly colored baits, which have a food-like taste and smell, are often placed in areas where children and pets can reach them, such as underneath radiators, ovens, near refrigerators or trash.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, bromethalin is Very Highly Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, bromethalin is Highly Toxic
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), bromethalin is Very Highly Toxic
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
Neurotoxin = Can harm brain and central nervous system
Other
Loss of muscle control, weakness, loss of tactile sensation.
Swelling of the brain, spinal column and nerves; blurred vision; loss of consciousness.
Skin and eye irritation, nasal discharge.
How Exposures Occur
Accidental Exposure
Children and pets could swallow the poison if it is placed within their reach and/or if the the bait is not in a tamper-resistant station. Children are attracted by the brightly colored baits.
During Application
Oral or inhalation exposure when setting the poison is primarily a greater concern for adults.
Significant Statistics
According to American Association for Poison Control Centers,20,206 people were exposed to rodenticides in 1999.Young children are the most common victims of exposure to rodenticides:17,498 cases of exposure (87%)were children under six years of age.
Litovitz, Toby, et al. “1999 Annual Report of the American Association for Poison Control Centers Toxic Exposure Surveillance System.” American Journal of Emergency Medicine. Vol. 18, No. 5 (September 2000).
http://www.aapcc.org/Annual%20Reports/99report/Entire%20Report.pdf
Solutions
How to detect bromethalin
As of the 1998 Reregistration Eligibility Decision, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency will require that manufacturers of bromethalin incorporate an indicator dye and a bittering agent in its formulations. The dye will help identify whether a child or pet has actually consumed the pesticide, and should ensure that only children who are known to have swallowed the rodent poison are treated. (Some children receive the treatment as a precaution in cases where it is suspected, but not proven, that they have swallowed the poison.) The bittering agent tastes bad and will hopefully deter children from ingesting bromethalin.
Know the ingredients of the rodenticide you are using. Read labels to determine if bromethalin is in products in your home or check Pesticide Action Network’s Pesticide Database for a list of brands and products containing this pesticide. If you hire a professional exterminator, ask for safety information, such as a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS), for the products used. New home owners should inspect carefully for rodenticide baits that may have been left by a previous owner.
How to minimize exposure to bromethalin
If your child swallows this rodenticide, contact a poison control center immediately.
Alternatives
Make your home unwelcome to rodents. Eliminate access to food and water, indoors and outdoors. Use rodent-proof containers. Cover or store pet food dishes when not in use. Keep wood piles off the ground and away from the house. Cut tall grasses and weeds near the house. Clean-up and recycle trash.
Block rodent “doorways” to prevent entry. Cover holes (e.g., where pipes or cables enter the house) with rodent-resistant materials, such as sheet metal (26 gauge or heavier), perforated metal (24 gauge or heavier with openings no more than 1/4 inch), hardware cloth (19 gauge or heavier with openings no more than 1/4 inch), brick with mortared joints, cement mortar (1:3 mixture) or concrete (1:2:4 mixture). Use weatherstripping under doors.
Set a trap for the pesky mice or rats. Baited traps, such as snap traps, glueboards, and live animal traps, don’t require poisons. Place them where rodents have been seen and near entry points. Remember to check them daily.
BHA is a chemical antioxidant used as a preservative in some edible fats and oils, fat- or oil-containing foods (e.g., baked goods, pork sausage), chewing gum, cosmetics, animal feed, food packaging, and in rubber and petroleum products.
Children can be exposed to BHA through a variety of processed foods.
BHA is related to a more widely used food preservative, BHT (butylated hydroxytoluene). BHT is not known to be an endocrine disruptor. Studies have not linked BHT to cancer conclusively.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, butylated hydroxyanisole is Moderately Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, butylated hydroxyanisole is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), butylated hydroxyanisole is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
Allergen
Suspected Endocrine Disruptor = May interfere with, mimic or block hormones
Other
In test animals, BHA has caused cancer in the forestomach. Humans do not have a forestomach, although the cause of any kind of tumors in animals is cause for concern.
In test tube studies, BHA has mimicked the hormonal actions of estrogen.
Repeated contact with skin may cause irritation and skin allergies/dermatitis.
How Exposures Occur
In Cosmetics
BHA may be absorbed through the skin from lipsticks, lip glosses, facial creams, eye shadows and mascaras that contain it as a preservative, or ingested from lipstick or lip gloss contact with foods and tongue.
In Foods
Children may ingest small quantities of BHA in some processed foods and snacks, such as chewing gum, dehydrated potatoes, potato chips, baked goods, dry-mix beverages and desserts, and dry breakfast cereals. However, BHA content is not permitted to exceed 0.02% of the total fat content of foods or 0.1% of chewing gum.
Significant Statistics
In a 1981 survey by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, BHA was reported to be used in 3,217 to 21,279 cosmetic formulations. In the majority (88%) of cases, the reported concentration was less than 0.1 percent. One product, a lipstick, was reported to contain more than 10 percent BHA. In this survey, lipsticks (1,256 products) represented the highest use of BHA, with eye shadows being the next highest (410 products).
“Butylated Hydroxyanisole (BHA), CAS No. 25013-16-5.” Tenth Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program, December 2002.http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/roc/tenth/profiles/s027bha.pdf
In 1975, the estimated average daily intake of BHA in the diet was 4.3 milligrams.
“Butylated Hydroxyanisole (BHA), CAS No. 25013-16-5.” Tenth Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program, December 2002.http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/roc/tenth/profiles/s027bha.pdf
Solutions
How to detect butylated hydroxyanisole
Read labels on processed foods. BHA is approved for use in many processed foods, including chewing gum, lard, potato chips, dehydrated potatoes, yeast, dry-mix beverages and desserts, dry breakfast cereals, and shortenings.
Read labels on cosmetics and personal care products. BHA is used in many lipsticks, lip glosses, mascaras, eye shadows, and facial creams. A search for BHA in the National Library of Medicine’s Household Products Database will show brand names of cosmetics that contain it.
You can search for personal care products containing butylated hydroxyanisole on Environmental Working Group’s Skin Deep Searchable Product Guide website.
How to minimize exposure to butylated hydroxyanisole
Avoid products listing BHA or butylated hydroxyanisole as an ingredient.
Alternatives
Choose fresh fruits and vegetables, whole grains and minimally processed foods. They are much more nutritious and less likely to contain potentially harmful preservatives and additives.
Plant- and mineral-based lipsticks and other cosmetics are often available at natural foods stores. However, read labels carefully to be sure BHA is not listed as an ingredient.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Chemical Cuisine: CSPI's Guide to Food Additives. Center for Science in the Public Interest.
http://www.cspinet.org/reports/chemcuisine.htm
Foulke, Judith E. "A Fresh Look at Food Preservatives." FDA Consumer. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, October 1993.
http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/fdpreser.html
Helmenstine, Anne Marie. BHA and BHT: Why are BHA and BHT in foods? Are They safe? About.com.
Cadmium is a heavy metal that occurs naturally in some soils and rocks. It is known to cause cancer in humans. Cadmium levels build up in the body over time and remain in the body.
Cadmium is used in various types of compounds. Cadmium sulfide is the most widely used cadmium compound and is used mainly in pigments. Cadmium is also used in batteries, photovoltaic cells, and infrared windows, metal coatings and electroplating, electrical components, paints, plastics (primarily polyvinyl chloride, or vinyl), ceramic glazes, and textile dyes. It is also an additive used in Teflon®. Fertilizers used to grow food may contain cadmium. Shellfish, liver, and kidney can accumulate high levels of cadmium.
Cadmium is released into the environment by the burning of coal, diesel fuel, gasoline and other fossil fuels, incineration of municipal waste, and from polluting metal alloy and electroplating facilities. Cadmium is present in vehicle tires and consequently in the particles resulting from tire wear. Cadmium is also emitted in tobacco smoke.
In the past, cadmium was used as a fungicide for golf courses and home lawns, but by 1997 all uses as pesticides were voluntarily cancelled.
Children are most likely to be exposed to cadmium through food and tobacco smoke. Younger individuals absorb and may even proportionally accumulate more cadmium than adults.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, cadmium is Very Highly Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, cadmium is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), cadmium is Very Highly Toxic
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
Suspected Endocrine Disruptor = May interfere with, mimic or block hormones
Development Toxicant = Can interfere with normal development of a fetus or child
Reproductive Toxicant = Can harm reproductive system
Other
Inhaling high levels of cadmium (e.g., by industrial workers) can cause severe lung damage and irritation, with shortness of breath, chest pain, cough, and a buildup of fluid in the lungs. In severe cases, this may result in death or permanent lung damage and emphysema. Most cadmium levels found in the environment are not high enough to cause lung damage.
If ingested at high levels in foods or water, can cause stomach irritation, nausea, vomiting, salivation, cramps, diarrhea, convulsions, shock, kidney failure, and sometimes death. Short-term health effects include flu-like symptoms, such as chills, headache, aching and/or fever.
Repeated low-level exposures to cadmium can cause kidney damage, leading to stones and tubular-cell death in the kidneys; liver damage; and weakening of bones, causing bone and joint pain and osteoporosis. Long-term exposure can also cause anemia, loss of sense of smell, fatigue, and/or yellow staining of teeth. Cadmium appears to depress some immune functions, mainly by reducing resistance to bacteria and viruses.
Cadmium causes lung cancer and may also be linked to prostate, kidney and bladder cancers in humans.
Cadmium may affect the human endocrine (hormone) system. In test tube studies it behaves like the female sex hormone estrogen. One study found a link between elevated cadmium levels in blood and a decrease in sperm motility and an increase in abnormal sperm morphology and serum testosterone. It may possibly damage the testes (male reproductive glands) and affect the female reproductive cycle.
The offspring of test animals exposed to cadmium during pregnancy had decreased weight gain, effects on the skeleton, and deficits in behavior and learning ability. Cadmium causes brain damage to newborn animals, whereas adults are resistant to these effects. There may be a potential increase in risk of decreased birth weight or developmental problems for humans, but these effects have not been observed.
How Exposures Occur
Human Breast Milk
Cadmium levels in human milk can also be from 5 to 10% of the levels found in the mother’s blood.
In Drinking Water
Children can ingest cadmium from drinking contaminated water. Cadmium may leach into groundwater from galanized zinc pipes containing a cadmium impurity, cadmium in solder used on copper pipes, or from hazardous waste sites.
In Food
Children may be exposed to low levels of cadmium in foods. Shellfish (clams, oysters, mussels, lobster, crab, shrimp) and organ meats (liver or kidney) typically contain the highest cadmium levels. Sunflower seed kernels also can contain relatively high levels of cadmium. The largest contributers of cadmium in the diet, after shellfish, are green leafy vegetables, cereal grains, potatoes, and milk. The application of phosphate fertilizers and sewage sludge may increase cadmium levels in soil, which, in turn, elevates cadmium levels in food crops. Food is the principal means of exposure to cadmium for non-smokers.
Prenatal Exposure
Cadmium does not readily go from a pregnant woman’s body into the developing child, but some can cross the placenta.
Rechargeable Batteries, Electronic Equipment, and Other Products
When rechargeable batteries, electronic equipment, or other products made with cadmium are discarded or burned rather than recycled, they can release cadmium into the environment.
Glazes for ceramics and glass, some fabric dyes used by home hobbyists, and some fertilizers, as well as fungicides purchased before 1997, may also contain cadmium.
Vinyl
Small children may be exposed to traces of cadmium if they chew vinyl toys, rain coats, umbrellas, clothing, backpacks, ponchos, school supplies, purses, and sports equipment. Traces of cadmium dust may form on the surface over time. Children might ingest small amounts if they chew these items or put their fingers in their mouths after touching cadmium-contaminanted dust. Dermal exposure (through the skin) is not a problem, however.
In Polluted Air or Dust
Children can inhale cadmium when they are exposed to secondhand cigarette smoke. Most smokers have about twice as much cadmium in their bodies as do nonsmokers.
Children can breathe in low levels of cadmium from air in industrial areas near zinc, lead or copper smelters, fossil fuel-burning utility plants, and municipal waste incinerators.
Children may also breathe or ingest dust or soil particles contaminated with cadmium.
Significant Statistics
About 25,000 to 30,000 tons of cadmium are released to the environment each year, about half from the weathering of rocks into river water and then to the oceans. Forest fires and volcanoes also release some cadmium to the air. Release of cadmium from human activities is estimated at from 4,000 to 13,000 tons per year, with major contributions from mining and from burning fossil fuels.
Between 1990 and 2000, cadmium production in the U.S. averaged approximately 1,440 metric tons per year. The U.S. was the third largest producer of cadmium in 2000, with about 10% of the world’s production.
“Cadmium and Cadmium Compounds: Known to be a Human Carcinogen.” Tenth Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program, December 2002.http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/roc/tenth/profiles/s028cadm.pdf
Food and cigarette smoke are the biggest sources of cadmium exposure for people in the general population. Smokers may receive twice the daily dose of cadmium as nonsmokers.
U.S. manufacturing plants released at least 12 million pounds of cadmium compounds into the environment in 1999, according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Toxic Release Inventory.
“Cadmium and Cadmium Compounds: Known to be a Human Carcinogen.” Tenth Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program, December 2002.http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/roc/tenth/profiles/s028cadm.pdf
Solutions
How to detect cadmium
If you live near a source of cadmium pollution, you may want to also test your garden soil for cadmium before eating foods grown in it.
In Drinking Water: While cadmium is regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act, if you live near a hazardous waste site, landfill, or metal smelter and draw your drinking water from a well, you may want to have your water tested for cadmium contamination. This law requires that community water systems monitor cadmium levels, and make public when levels exceed the set Maximum Contamination Level (MCL). The MCL for cadmium has also been set at 5 parts per billion.
Community water systems are required to produce annual consumer confidence reports and mail them to every water customer.
If your water source is a well, your water is not monitored for contaminants as is required for public water supplies by the Safe Drinking Water Act. Private testing of the water is necessary.
Even if your water comes from a community water system, contaminant levels can vary from house to house. You can have your water tested by sending samples to a certified laboratory.
You can search for water quality reports from your water provider, obtain information on well water testing and find a list of state-certified drinking water laboratories at the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Office of Water’s website or call the EPA’s Safe Drinking Water Hotline, 800-426-4791.
Most rechargeable batteries are nickel-cadmium, often abbreviated as Ni-Cad. Small children may mistake ni-cad batteries for toys and may accidentally swallow them. If the
battery case is damaged, then some cadmium could escape and come in contact with the stomach or intestines. Keep Ni-Cad batteries out of the reach of small children, and teach your older children that the contents in Ni-Cad batteries can be harmful to their health if swallowed or burned.
Read labels on solders, glazes, dyes, fertilizers before purchase or use. Try to avoid those that list cadmium or a cadmium compound as an ingredient.
How to minimize exposure to cadmium
If you use products that may contain cadmium, make sure you are using them in a well-ventilated area and are instructed in the proper use of a respirator.
Keep all nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cad) rechargeable batteries out of reach of children. Recycle them when they’ve lost their final charge to keep them out of the waste stream. To find a recycling drop-off site, contact the Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation, which has set up collection sites at numerous home stores across the country. See the RBRC website, or call 800-8-BATTERY, find your nearest dropoff site.
Reduce your children’s exposure to secondhand cigarette smoke by making your home a smoke-free zone.
If tests on your well water supply have shown higher than permissible levels of cadmium, install a water filtration system to reduce cadmium in your drinking water. The following water filtration/treatment methods have been approved by EPA for removing cadmium: Coagulation/Filtration, Ion Exchange, Lime Softening, Reverse Osmosis.
Eating a nutritious diet that is high in zinc, iron and calcium, and has plenty of protein and other nutrients, and low in fat, will minimize your body’s absorption of cadmium.
Natural fiber clothing and wooden or cloth toys do not contain cadmium stabilizers, as vinyl does.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Other government agencies
Agency of Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
Division of Toxicology
1600 Clifton Road E-29
Atlanta, GA 30333
800-447-1544
Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water
Ariel Rios Building
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20460-0003
Safe Drinking Water Hotline:
800-426-4791
Carbaryl (1-naphthol N-methylcarbamate) is a widely used neurotoxic insecticide in the carbamate family. It is used to kill over 100 species of insects on home lawns and gardens, and in citrus, fruit and nut trees, forests, shade trees, hay, cotton, rice, tomatoes, corn, soybeans and vegetables. It is also widely used in dust form and also in baits. Carbaryl is also used to control insects on animals: in collars and dusts to control fleas and ticks on pets, livestock and poultry.
Children may be exposed to carbaryl during and after pesticide applications on lawns and gardens. Children are likely to inhale, touch or ingest carbaryl in flea dusts and other anti-flea products when they play and touch treated pets.
Due to concerns about health risks to children and others from exposure to carbaryl applied to lawns and pets by homeowners, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) announced in July 2003 an interim decision to cancel many residential uses of carbaryl. All pet products except for flea collars will be canceled. All liquid, aerosol and hand-applied granular and bait products for lawns and gardens will be phased out by July 1, 2004.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, carbaryl is Highly Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, carbaryl is Very Highly Toxic
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), carbaryl is Slightly Toxic
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
Neurotoxin = Can harm brain and central nervous system
Suspected Endocrine Disruptor = May interfere with, mimic or block hormones
Development Toxicant = Can interfere with normal development of a fetus or child
Other
Contact may cause skin, eye, and respiratory tract irritation. Skin contact may cause a rash or burning sensation.
If inhaled, can affect the central nervous system, causing blurred vision, sweating, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pains, incoordination, excessive salivation, and difficulty breathing. In severe cases, this can cause convulsions, coma and respiratory failure. Unlike some other nerve-damaging pesticides, nervous system effects from carbaryl exposure are usually reversible.
Repeated or long-term exposure can cause headaches, memory loss, muscle weakness and cramps, anorexia, kidney damage, and weakened immune system. Test animals repeatedly fed doses of carbaryl also experienced liver damage. Carbaryl poses a slight risk for causing genetic mutations.
Test animals fed carbaryl have experienced sperm damage and reduced fertility, and carbaryl has caused birth defects, reduced litter size, and increased mortality in offspring. Developmental toxicity in humans is suspected, but not definitive.
Carbaryl is suspected of interfering with the body’s normal hormone functions.
Some, but not all, studies have found a possible link between carbaryl use and an increased risk of certain cancers, including non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma and childhood brain cancer. Additionally, when carbaryl enters the stomach, it can be transformed into N-nitrosocarbaryl, a chemical in the nitrosamine class that has caused cancer and genetic damage in test animals.
How Exposures Occur
In Food
Children may ingest traces of carbaryl in foods that have been treated with it. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has found carbaryl residues on samples of apples, apple juice, bell peppers, green beans, peaches, grapes, pears, oranges, peas, and sweet potatoes. Carbaryl has also been detected in some baby food samples.
Pesticide Application and Drift
Children can inhale carbaryl when it is being applied inside the home, on home lawns and gardens or when spray drifts from neighboring lawns, farms, orchards or treated forests.
Flea and Tick Control Products
Children may be exposed to carbaryl if pets have been treated with carbaryl dust or wear carbaryl-treated collars to control fleas and ticks. Children may be exposed to these products by inhalation, by skin contact if they pet the treated animal, or by ingestion if they subsequently place their hands in their mouth.
In Water
Children could be exposed to low levels of carbaryl in drinking water. Traces of carbaryl have been detected in some surface and ground water samples from across the country, usually at higher levels near urban areas. Carbaryl is not regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act.
Contact with Treated Areas
After carbaryl has been applied to lawns or gardens, children may be exposed by inhalation or by putting their hands in their mouths after touching something in treated areas.
Significant Statistics
2,746 cases of exposure to carbamate insecticides were reported to poison control centers in the United States in the year 2000. 1,145 of these cases involved children under the age of six.
Litovitz, Toby. “2000 AAPCC Annual Report.” American Journal of Emergency Medicine, Vol. 19, No. 5 (September 2001).http://www.aapcc.org/2000.htm
Carbaryl is the 7th most common pesticide used by homeowners in homes and gardens, with between 2 and 4 million pounds purchased for home uses in 1999.
Read labels to determine if carbaryl is in products in your home or check Pesticide Action Network’s Pesticides Database for a list of brands and products containing this pesticide. If you hire a professional exterminator, ask for safety information, such as a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS), for the products used.
Food: There is no way for parents to determine exactly how much carbaryl may be in their children’s food. You can get a rough idea of the fruits and vegetables that may contain carbaryl from:
Avoid the use of carbaryl, if possible, especially on pets. Don’t buy flea collars containing carbaryl for your cat or dog. If you have any products containing carbaryl, contact your local sanitation department or hazardous waste disposal program to find out how to dispose of them properly. Earth 911 lists hazardous waste disposal sites by zip code.
To avoid tracking pesticides into the house, where they can become embedded in carpets, always remove shoes at the door or wipe shoes on door mats before entering your home.
Wash non-organic fruits and vegetables well and peel them when possible. Choose organic foods, if possible. A good place to start is with 10 Fruits and Vegetables to Buy Organic.
Alternatives
Rid your pet of fleas naturally. For further details and instructions, see The Green Pet.
Choose least-toxic pest control methods, such as Integrated Pest Management, for your home garden, lawn and shrubs. See Pest Control Without Pesticides
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Other government agencies
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Pesticide Programs
Ariel Rios Building
1200 Pennsylvania Ave. NW
Washington, DC 20460
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorless, poisonous gas that is produced whenever any fuel such as gasoline, fuel oil, natural gas, kerosene, wood, coal, or charcoal is burned. Carbon monoxide is one of the major combustion pollutants that can contaminate indoor and outdoor air.
Indoors, CO is emitted by unvented and improperly maintained gas appliances (kerosene and gas space heaters, furnaces, water heaters, stoves), woodstoves and fireplaces, and tobacco smoke. Automobile exhaust, a major source of CO, can seep into homes from attached garages or into vehicle compartments.
CO can accumulate very rapidly indoors. At high levels, carbon monoxide can be fatal within minutes. Hundreds of people die accidentally every year from CO poisoning caused by malfunctioning or improperly used fuel-burning appliances and idling cars. Low levels of CO can also cause health effects and trigger asthma.
Infants and young children, the elderly, smokers, and individuals with anemia or respiratory diseases such as asthma are also particularly sensitive to CO exposure. Exposure to CO during pregnancy can result in the exposure and harm of the fetus.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, carbon monoxide is Not Available
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, carbon monoxide is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), carbon monoxide is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
Neurotoxin = Can harm brain and central nervous system
Asthma Trigger
Development Toxicant = Can interfere with normal development of a fetus or child
Other
Inhaling carbon monoxide, even at low levels, can cause headache, fatigue, queasiness, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, difficulty concentrating, memory and vision problems, confusion and incoordination. Because some of these symptoms resemble the flu, CO poisoning victims are often not correctly diagnosed, sometimes leading to death.
Even low levels of carbon monoxide can cause chest pain in persons with heart disease. Carbon monoxide exposure can cause cardiovascular arrhythmia and cardiomyopathy. Infants and young children, the elderly, smokers, and individuals with anemia or respiratory diseases such as asthma are also particularly sensitive to CO exposure.
High levels of CO can cause severe headache, brain and heart damage, convulsions, unconsciousness and death.
Repeated exposure may increase the risk for heart disease and damage the brain and central nervous system.
Birth defects and stillbirth. Carbon monoxide readily crosses the placenta. Exposure to high levels of carbon monoxide during pregnancy may increase the risk that the child could be born with brain damage, congenital heart defects, or reduced birth weight, or that it could be stillborn.
Temporary blood damage. Breathing very high levels of carbon monoxide forms carboxyhemoglobin in the bloodstream, which inhibits the ability of the blood to carry oxygen to organs and tissues. This can damage body tissues and organs and cause them to die of a lack of oxygen, resulting in flushing and redness of the skin and mucous membranes, followed by convulsions, coma and death. After exposure has ceased, it may take a long time (around 10 hours) for carboxyhemoglobin levels to return to normal.
How Exposures Occur
Automobile Exhaust
Children can inhale carbon monoxide from car exhaust, particularly in enclosed spaces such as garages, or in houses attached to the garage. When a car is left running in a garage, CO can reach fatal levels inside the garage, even with windows and doors open, and inside rooms adjacent to the garage inside the home. CO poisoning from vehicle exhaust is the most common cause of poisoning deaths in the U.S.
Children are exposed to low levels of CO from breathing outdoor air, with those in high-traffic urban environments likely to breathe in more CO from car exhaust than kids in rural areas.
Gasoline-Powered Tools
Children can inhale dangerous levels of carbon monoxide if they are near gas-powered lawn mowers or power tools that are being used in enclosed areas, even if windows and doors are open.
Paint Strippers
Children can be exposed to carbon monoxide if paint strippers containing methylene chloride are being used nearby. Methylene chloride is readily absorbed through the lungs and is converted to carbon monoxide inside the body.
Smoke From Fires
Children may inhale harmful or fatal levels of carbon monoxide from smoke from fires, including home or building fires, improperly vented fireplaces and wood stoves, and charcoal burned in an enclosed space. Smoke inhalation from all types of fires is the second leading cause of CO poisoning, which causes most immediate deaths from building fires.
Combustion Appliances
Indoors, children can inhale carbon monoxide if the following fuel-burning appliances are not properly maintained or operated: furnaces, unvented kerosene and gas space heaters, gas water heaters, wood stoves, and gas stoves.
Second-Hand Smoke
Tobacco smoke is also a significant source of CO, containing approximately 4% CO. Children can inhale it while in the presence of smokers.
Significant Statistics
Carbon monoxide from vehicle exhaust is the single most common cause of poisoning deaths in the United States.
Approximately 500 people die each year in the U.S. as a result of accidental carbon monoxide poisoning, and about 10,000 others are sent to the emergency room. Of the fatal CO poisonings, approximately 60% are caused by motor vehicle exhaust, and 40% are caused by consumer products, primarily heating systems. Other causes of death include charcoal grills, gas water heaters, gas ranges and ovens, and fuel-burning camping equipment.
Non-Fire Carbon Monoxide Deaths and Injuries Associated With the Use of Consumer Products: Annual Estimates. U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, October 2000.http://www.cpsc.gov/LIBRARY/co00.pdf
Nationwide, 81% of all carbon monoxide emissions come from transportation sources, with the largest contribution coming from highway motor vehicles. In high-traffic urban areas, as much as 95% of all carbon monoxide emissions can be attributed to car exhaust.
1995 Air Quality: Status and Trends-Six Principal Pollutants: Carbon Monoxide. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air and Radiation.
http://www.epa.gov/oar/aqtrnd95/co.html
Due to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency regulations that forced vehicles to be fitted with catalytic converters, which convert carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide, in the 1970s, today’s cars are capable of emitting 90% less carbon monoxide over their lifetimes than their uncontrolled counterparts of the 1960s. As a result, outdoor carbon monoxide levels have dropped, despite large increases in the number of vehicles on the road and the number of miles they travel.
Carbon Monoxide Monitors, Detectors or Alarms. Because CO is odorless, invisible, tasteless, and non-irritating, it is impossible to detect without a carbon monoxide detector alarm. The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission recommends that all homes have at least one CO detector. They are widely available in home and hardware stores. Make sure that the detector you choose meets the requirements of the most recent Underwriters Laboratories (UL) 2034 standard or International Approval Services 6-96 standard. Look for logos for these on the detector or its packaging. Also choose one that has a long-term warranty and that can be easily self-tested and reset to ensure proper functioning. Carbon monoxide detectors should be placed close to sleeping areas in particular. If your home has more than one floor, install monitors on each floor. Good installation spots include outside the kitchen and near doors that exit to a garage.
If your CO detector goes off, you should:
-Make sure it is the CO detector and not a smoke alarm.
-Check to see if any member of your household is experiencing symptoms (see Health Effects, above).
-If they are, get them out of the house immediately and seek medical attention.
-If no one is feeling symptoms, ventilate the home with fresh air and turn off all potential sources of CO.
CO is invisible and odorless, so it’s harder to tell if an alarm is false or a real emergency. If CO poisoning has occurred, it can often be diagnosed by a blood test done soon after exposure.
NOTE: CO alarms are not yet as reliable as smoke alarms. A CO alarm should not substitute for proper maintenance and use of combustion appliances.
Some visible clues that may indicate that carbon monoxide is leaking into your home include:
• rust or water streaks on vents and chimneys
• loose or missing furnace panels
• loose or disconnected vent or chimney connections
• debris or soot falling from inside the chimney, fireplace or appliance
• loose masonry on chimney
• moisture inside of windows.
How to minimize exposure to carbon monoxide
If you experience symptoms that you think could be from CO poisoning, open doors and windows, turn off combustion appliances, leave the house and get fresh air immediately.
Make sure your home is ventilated well when using gas appliances and have gas appliances cleaned inspected annually for leaks and obstructions. For more tips, see Gas Appliances: How to Minimize Pollutants.
Have your car’s exhaust system inspected annually to be sure it has no small leaks, which can result in an accumulation of CO inside your car. If you are driving with your tailgate open, be sure to open vents or windows to increase the flow of air in the car. If the tailgate window is open and the other windows or the vents are closed, CO from the exhaust will be drawn into the car. Avoid sitting in an idling car. If this is necessary, keep windows open at least slightly.
Don’t leave a car or lawnmower engine running in a shed or garage or in other enclosed spaces. Even if the garage door to the outside is open, fumes can build up very quickly in the garage and living area of your home. Also, don’t operate gasoline-powered appliances, engines or tools (mowers, weed trimmers, snow blowers, chain saws, small engines or generators) in enclosed or partly-enclosed spaces.
Minimize your children’s exposure to secondhand tobacco smoke. If you live with children, do not smoke inside your home or permit others to do so. Any smoking should be done outdoors. Do not smoke where children, particularly infants and toddlers, are present, especially in day care centers, nurseries, or other settings where they spend long hours. Do not smoke in the car: The high concentration of smoke in a small, closed compartment substantially increases the exposure to other passengers. If smoking in the home cannot be avoided, open windows and increase ventilation with box or exhaust fans.
Heating systems powered by electricity and electrical appliances (as opposed to gas) don’t release CO and other combustion pollutants into indoor. However, some power plants release combustion byproducts into the environment. Choose clean and environmental energy sources, if you have a choice.
If you purchase gas appliances, choose those that vent their fumes outdoors whenever possible. Have them properly installed, and maintain them according to manufacturers’ instructions. When appliances are kept in good working condition, they produce little carbon monoxide.
Power tools and machinery powered by electricity or compressed air (as opposed to gasoline) do not produce carbon monoxide when in use and will not present an inhalation hazard when used in enclosed areas.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Carbon Monoxide. National Safety Council, Environmental Health Center.
http://www.nsc.org/ehc/indoor/carb_mon.htm
American Lung Association Fact Sheet: Carbon Monoxide. The American Lung Association,
September 2000.
Checklist for the Prevention of Carbon Monoxide (CO) Poisoning. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Environmental Health, Air and Respiratory Health Branch.
Chlorine is a highly corrosive gas with a pungent odor that is derived from natural sources such as salt (sodium chloride) and produced in mass quantities for industrial use. Chlorine is a building block for PVC plastics (vinyl) and for numerous chemicals, including pesticides, refrigerants, anti-knock compounds, and antifreeze. Dissolved in liquid to form sodium hypochlorite, or bleach, it is widely used as a disinfectant, in bleaching, and to purify public water supplies. Another form, hydrochloric acid, may be used in some toilet bowl cleaners.
Household bleach is a weak sodium hypochlorite solution. Household bleach is the most common cleaner accidentally swallowed by children. Children can also be exposed to dangerous gases when cleaners containing bleach are mixed with other cleaning agents, such as ammonia.
Concern about chlorine exposure also arises from its ability to form more toxic byproducts. Chlorine reacts with organic matter in drinking water to produce trihalomethanes, which may cause cancer and possibly developmental effects. A recent study links children’s exposure to one byproduct, nitrogen trichloride, in chlorinated indoor pools to asthma. Chlorine bleaching of paper and the manufacture and incineration of PVC plastic results in the formation of highly toxic dioxins and furans.
Acute toxicity information below is for sodium hypochlorite (bleach).
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, chlorine is Moderately Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, chlorine is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), chlorine is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is considered an Unclassifiable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Development Toxicant = Can interfere with normal development of a fetus or child
Other
Chlorine bleach can cause severe skin and eye irritation or chemical burns to broken skin.
Possible slight increase in the risk of bladder and rectal cancers in long-time users of chlorinated water supplies.
Inhaled in high concentrations, can cause respiratory problems including coughing, choking, chest pain, emphysema, and chronic and acute bronchitis. A recent study links children’s exposure to nitrogen trichloride, a chlorination byproduct, at indoor swimming pools to an increased risk in developing asthma.
Inhalation of chlorine gas can corrode the teeth.
In laboratory animals, repeated inhalation of chlorine has damaged the liver, kidney, blood, heart, and immune and respiratory systems.
How Exposures Occur
Cleaning Products
Cleaners containing bleach could be swallowed by children. Clear products may be mistaken for water.
Children can inhale toxic chlorine gases if products containing bleach are mixed with ammonia or cleaners containing acids, such as some toilet bowl and oven cleaners.
Chlorinated Swimming Pool Treatments
Children can inhale significant amounts of chlorine and chlorination byproducts at levels potentially damaging to their lungs from chlorinator tablets in pools, particularly if they frequently swim in indoor pools, and if high levels of urine or other acidic compounds are present in water.
Exposure to chlorine from a typical swim is roughly the same as occupational chlorine exposures. Chloroform, a trihalomethane, is the volatile byproduct present at highest levels. It is a carcinogen and developmental toxicant, among other things. Exposure to chloroform from a typical swim is equivalent to an entire week’s exposure from drinking and showering . Exposure is best kept at a minimum.
Drinking Water Disinfected with Chlorine
Children can ingest small amounts of chlorine and its byproducts in drinking water that has been treated with chlorine to kill microbes.
Steam from Showers and Appliances
Children can inhale chlorine and its byproducts in steam from showers and baths. These toxins can also be absorbed through the skin. Steam from dishwashers using chlorinated water also contains chlorine and byproducts.
Significant Statistics
In 2000, poison control centers in the United States reported that chlorine bleach was implicated in exposures to 18,863 children under the age of six.
The total inhalation exposure of chlorine and chlorine byproducts due to showering, dishwashing and water boiling is comparable to that from dietary exposure.
Trihalomethanes, toxic byproducts of chlorine disinfection of water supplies, may cause more than 10,000 cases of bladder and rectal cancer each year, according to an analysis of more than a dozen peer-reviewed, published, epidemiological studies.
The largest use of chlorine is as a raw material in the production of PVC plastic (vinyl).
Cleaning products containing chlorine are sometimes labeled as such, but chlorine can also be identified by its strong, distinct odor.
Searching for “sodium hypochlorite” or “bleach” in the National Library of Medicine’s Household Products Database will show a list of products that contain it.
How to minimize exposure to chlorine
Avoid cleaning with chlorine-based products, especially if you or your children have asthma or chronic lung or heart problems. If you do use cleaning products that contain chlorine, wear gloves to avoid direct contact with skin, and provide plenty of ventilation by opening windows. Keep children out of the room!
To prevent the creation of toxic chlorine or chloramine gases, which can damage lungs and cause coughing and choking, never mix chlorine-containing cleansers with other cleaning products, particularly ones containing ammonia or other acidic substances.
Carbon filters can remove the chlorine and chlorine disinfection byproducts from water. These filters are available for showerheads.
It is extremely important to change filters regularly. Otherwise, the filters will start releasing contaminants back into the water.
To reduce chlorine and trihalomethanes (THMs) in drinking water:
-Store drinking water in pitchers. About 20% of the THMs will evaporate from the water.
-Drink hot beverages (rather than cold tap water). The THMs and chlorine will evaporate. Cooking also helps reduce THMs intake, but the steam will expose the cook. (Do not use hot water from the tap as hot water leaches lead from pipes.)
To prevent the entry of toxic chlorine byproducts into the environment, avoid buying and using PVC (vinyl) plastic products and chlorinated pesticides. Choose recycled and unbleached, or chlorine-free paper products. For more information, go to the Chlorine Free Products Association website.
Install an ozonator in your swimming pool, hot tub or jacuzzi to reduce the amount of chlorine needed. Many pool supply retail stores have them.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Dickey, Philip. Safer Cleaning Products. Washington Toxics Coalition, May 1998.
Chlorothalonil is an organochlorine fungicide widely used to control fungal diseases on vegetables, trees, small fruits, peanuts, lawns and golf courses, ornamental plants such as roses, and to control fruit rot in cranberry bogs. Chlorothalonil is also added to some paints, stains, and wood preservatives to provide mildew resistance.
Products containing chlorothalonil are prohibited for use on home lawns, and products that contain chlorothalonil for mildew destruction must be labeled to prevent sale at over-the-counter retail outlets.
Children may be exposed to chlorothalonil during and after application of chlorothalonil-containing pesticides by neighboring facilities.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, chlorothalonil is Slightly Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, chlorothalonil is Moderately Toxic
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), chlorothalonil is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
Allergen
Other
In tested rodents, high doses of chlorothalonil has caused tumors (benign and malignant) in the kidney.
Some formulations can cause severe eye and skin irritation, allergic dermatitis (skin rash), or allergic asthma upon contact.
Very high doses in laboratory animals have caused a loss of muscle coordination, rapid breathing, nose bleeding, vomiting, hyperactivity, dermatitis, vaginal bleeding, bright yellow and/or bloody urine, and kidney tumors.
High doses fed to laboratory animals caused kidney damage.
Chronic skin contact can cause dermatitis, skin sensitization, and sensitivity to light. Swelling and inflammation of upper eyelids has been reported among workers.
How Exposures Occur
Ingestion From Eating Food
Traces of chlorothalonil have been detected on tomatoes, spinach, green beans, celery, apples, green peppers, peaches, pears, raspberries, strawberries, winter squash, and imported grapes and cantaloupes, among other produce.
Inhalation
Children can inhale chlorothalonil during spraying or when spray drifts from neighboring farms, golf courses, or lawns (although use on home lawns is now prohibited).
Children may also inhale particles of the pesticide when lying or playing on carpets, where pesticides can collect after being tracked indoors on shoes.
Ingestion From Soil
Chlorothalonil may remain in soil up to several months after treatment. Children living near agricultural areas where chlorothalonil is used could possibly be exposed by touching treated soil and putting their fingers in their mouth afterwards.
Occupational
Children of farm workers and pesticide applicators are exposed to higher amounts of chlorothalonil and other pesticides, which can enter the home on clothing, shoes, etc.
Significant Statistics
Chlorothalonil is the second most widely used fungicide in the U.S.
Read labels on paints, stains and pesticides and avoid those containing chlorothalonil. They should not be used in homes. A search for chlorothalonil in the National Library of Medicine’s Household Products Database will show a list of brands that contain it.
Request Material Safety Data Sheets from your lawn care professional before use of pesticide products around your home. Do not permit use of chlorothalonil on your lawn or garden.
Food: There is no way for parents to determine exactly how much chlorothalonil may be in their children’s food. You can get a rough idea of the fruits and vegetables that may contain chlorothalonil from:
If you have any products containing chlorothalonil for home lawn usage or control of mildew, return it to the retailer or manufacturer, or contact your local sanitation department or hazardous waste disposal program to find out how to dispose of it properly. Earth 911 lists hazardous waste disposal sites by zip code.
To avoid tracking pesticides into the house, where they can become embedded in carpets, always remove shoes at the door or wipe shoes on door mats before entering your home.
Alternatives
Adopt Integrated Pest Management practices to keep fungal diseases at bay. Methods include keeping enough distance between plants and picking off diseased leaves to prevent the spread of the disease. For nontoxic treatments against rose diseases, which are often treated with chlorothalonil, see Least-Toxic Management of Rose Diseases.
Choose low-or no-VOC paints and stains. These paints are formulated to release fewer fumes. Natural paints, such as milk paints or plant- and mineral-based paints, may not contain toxic fungicides. Check the label before purchasing or contact manufacturers for more information.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
"Alternatives: Least-Toxic Management of Rose Diseases," Journal of Pesticide Reform, Vol. 15, No. 1 (1995).
http://www.pesticide.org/rose.pdf
Other government agencies
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Pesticide Programs (Division Mail Code)
Ariel Rios Building
1200 Pennsylvania Ave. NW
Washington DC 20460
Chlorothalonil is highly toxic to fish, aquatic invertebrates, and marine organisms and may affect their reproduction. Fish such as rainbow trout, bluegill, and channel catfish are noticeably affected even when chlorothalonil levels are low (less than 1 milligram per liter of water).
Source: Pesticide Information Profile: Chlorothalonil. Extension Toxicology Network (EXTOXNET), Revised June 1996.
This organophosphate insecticide has been widely used until recently in homes and buildings to control termites and roaches, on lawns and gardens, and in flea collars. It is also applied to many fruit, vegetable and other food crops.
Due to the risks that chlorpyrifos poses to children’s health, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency began a phaseout of chlorpyrifos for use in homes, outdoor areas where children may be exposed, and some agricultural uses in June 2000.
Chlorpyrifos products intended for almost all home uses, including on home lawns, as indoor crack and crevice (roach) treatments and whole-house termiticide treatments (post-construction), can no longer be sold to consumers. Children could be exposed to products purchased before December 31, 2001.
Commercial operators will not be subject to such restrictions, though applications will not be permitted in schools, parks, and other areas where children might be exposed. Spot termite treatments (post-construction) will be phased out by the end of 2002, and pre-construction applications will be phased out by the end of 2005.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, chlorpyrifos is Very Highly Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, chlorpyrifos is Highly Toxic
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), chlorpyrifos is Highly Toxic
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical may cause cancer. It is considered a Possible Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Neurotoxin = Can harm brain and central nervous system
Asthma Trigger
Other
Brain and nervous system effects, such as headache, nausea, cramps, dizziness, chest pain, difficulty breathing, confusion, and at high exposures, respiratory paralysis and death.
Chronic effects include flu-like symptoms, persistent headaches, blurred vision, fatigue and muscle weakness.
Other chronic effects relate to mental functions, such as impaired memory, inability to concentrate, depression, disorientation, confusion, speech difficulty, delayed reaction times and irritability.
Exposure to chlorpyrifos and diazinon during pregnancy may result in smaller birth size, according to a 2004 study. Women with higher chlorpyrifos and diazinon levels in their blood and umbilical-cord blood gave birth to lighter, shorter babies, with birth weights increasing again after government restrictions on the two pesticides, the study found.
How Exposures Occur
Absorption Through Skin
Children may absorb chlorpyrifos residues through their skin by touching treated surfaces, pets, carpets, toys, dust and other items in the home, schools, day care centers, hospitals, and shopping centers.
Accidental Ingestion
Children may swallow chlorpyrifos by mouthing contaminated surfaces or by putting their hands in their mouths, or by putting treated soil or plants in their mouth.
Flea Collars
Children who play with pets wearing chlorpyrifos-containing flea collars may be exposed to levels of chlorpyrifos far above EPA’s “safe” dose.
From Food
Children may also be exposed to chlorpyrifos by eating foods with pesticide residues. The U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Pesticide Data Program has found chlorpyrifos residues on apples, tomatoes, grapes and soybeans. EPA restrictions should reduce residues on food after the year 2000.
Inhalation
Children may draw the pesticide into their lung while breathing soon after spraying, or as the result of breathing in contaminated dust. Additionally, children can breathe in chlorpyrifos from carpets long after application, since the chemical lingers there.
Liquid Lawn Sprays
When used on home, school and park lawns, this form of chlorpyrifos can expose children to the highest levels above EPA’s “safe dose”.
Significant Statistics
Chlorpyrifos is the third most frequently detected insecticide in streams in urban areas due to residential uses.
The majority of Americans have been exposed to chlorpyrifos. Studies have found a breakdown product of chlorpyrifos in the urine of 92% of 89 children and 82% of 993 adults evaluated.
An estimated 20 to 24 million pounds of chlorpyrifos were expected to have been applied annually in the U.S. prior to the enactment of restriction in 2000.
Read labels on all home and garden pesticides. If any list chlorpyrifos or Dursban or Lorsban as an ingredient, contact your local sanitation department or hazardous waste disposal program to find out how to dispose of it properly.
You can find out if chlorpyrifos is an ingredient in a particular pesticide product on Pesticide Action Network Pesticide Database.
Contact pesticide applicators. If your home or lawn was recently treated with pesticides and if any family members have since begun suffering from health effects that you suspect may be linked to exposure, contact the pesticide applicator and ask if any of the products used contained chlorpyrifos.
Food: There is no way for parents to determine exactly how much chlorpyrifos may be in their children’s food. You can get a rough idea of the fruits and vegetables that may contain chlorpyrifos from:
Avoid the use of pesticides whenever possible, especially near children.
If your home was recently treated with a pesticide containing chlorpyrifos and an odor remains, ventilate your home:
Reduce indoor air levels by periodically opening windows and doors and using fans to cross-ventilate.
In crawl spaces, clear or add vents and/or install a fan to constantly vent crawl space air to the outside. A radon fan is likely to reduce indoor air levels of chlorpyrifos from a termiticide treatment as well.
Contact your local sanitation department or hazardous waste disposal program to find out how to dispose of pesticides properly. Earth’s 911 lists hazardous waste disposal sites by zip code.
Alternatives
For Termites: Effective measures depend on the species of termite causing the problem. Take insect samples to a local agricultural extension service for identification or enlist the assistance of a pest control company that agrees to conduct an inspection without spraying.
Nontoxic termite treatments include digging out colonies, removing their earthen tubes, and removing and replacing damaged wood, or contracting a nontoxic pest control specialist to use extreme heat or cold treatments,nematode applications, or electrogun treatments. A safer termite control system called Sentricon involves the use of baits and an insect growth regulator that is harmless to humans and pets. It is available through commercial pest control operators.
For Roaches: Deterrence is your best bet. Remove their food and water sources by keeping kitchen counters and cabinets clean and dry, repairing dripping faucets and plumbing leaks, and covering or removing pet food and water at night. Get rid of some of their hiding places by removing clutter, stacks of newspapers or plastic bags. Seal cracks and holes in walls, around pipes and along floorboards.
To get rid of the free-loaders once they’ve taken up residence, place nontoxic glue traps in cabinets, around sinks and floorboards, and under sinks, stoves and refrigerators—this will also tell you where your highest concentration is. Dust cracks and crevices with boric acid, silica gel or diatomaceous earth where children and pets won’t be exposed.
Case, David. “Dursban Case Study: The Toxic Pesticide the EPA Has Declined (So Far) to Ban,” TomPaine.com February 8, 2000.
http://www.tompaine.com/feature2.cfm/ID/2735
Basic Facts about Dursban. Environmental Working Group.
Olkowski, William, Sheila Daar, and Helga Olkowski. Common-Sense Pest Control: Least Toxic Solutions for Your Home, garden, Pets, and Community. Newton, Conn.: Taunton Press, 1991.
The Basics of Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs). The Collaborative on Health and Environment.
Coal tar dyes are synthetic dyes, once derived from coal tar which are currently derived from petroleum sources. Coal tar dyes are used in foods, cosmetics and personal care products, such as hair dyes, shampoos and deodorants, over-the-counter and prescription drugs, and textiles.
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has been regulating color additives used in food, drugs and cosmetics since the early 1900s. Synthetic dyes must be certified to confirm that each batch meets established specifications. These colors are labeled as FD&C, D&C or external D&C, with F standing for food use, D for drug use, and C for cosmetic use. For example, FD&C Blue No. 1 is a synthetic blue color that can be used in foods, drugs and cosmetics.
With the exception of hair dyes containing coal tar dyes, the FDA may remove any food, cosmetic or drug from the market if it can be shown that its use causes harm. Hair dye manufacturers must label any product containing coal tar hair dyes with a warning that the product may cause skin reactions in certain allergic individuals.
Nine synthetic dyes are approved for use in food; 35 for use in cosmetics; and 35 for use in drugs.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, Coal tar dyes is Not Available
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, Coal tar dyes is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), Coal tar dyes is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is considered an Unclassifiable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Allergen
Other
Solutions
How to detect Coal tar dyes
How to minimize exposure to Coal tar dyes
Alternatives
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Other government agencies
Nonprofit organizations
Other websites
creosote
Also Known As:
soot
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, creosote is Not Available
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, creosote is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), creosote is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is likely to cause cancer. It is considered a Probable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Other
Solutions
How to detect creosote
How to minimize exposure to creosote
Alternatives
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Other government agencies
Nonprofit organizations
Other websites
d-limonene
Description
A naturally occurring oil in citrus peels and other plants, d-limonene is present in foods and in many essential oils. It can also be synthetically produced. D-limonene is extensively used as a food additive to provide a citrus flavor, as a fragrance in perfumes, air fresheners, and personal care products, and as a natural replacement for petroleum-based solvents in paints and cleaning products. D-limonene may also be used as an inert ingredient in pesticides.
Children may inhale its fumes when these products are used indoors, or they may ingest d-limonene in citrus flavored foods.
Though cited as a cancer-causing substance by some, it is still unclear whether this is true. However, fumes containing d-limonene may irritate the eyes and airways of some people, especially when fumes build up indoors.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, d-limonene is Moderately Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, d-limonene is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), d-limonene is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is considered an Unclassifiable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Other
May be irritating to skin, eye, or airways.
In laboratory animals, d-limonene has caused kidney tumors in male rats but not in female rats or mice of either gender. The mechanism by which d-limonene caused the tumors in male rats has been determined to be irrelevant to humans, however.
In laboratory animals exposed to high doses in the womb, d-limonene has delayed growth and caused skeletal abnormalities.
Limonene can react with ozone, forming particulates that could impact asthmatics and those with other respiratory ailments.
How Exposures Occur
From food
D-limonene is a natural component of citrus fruits, celery and some spices and as a flavor additive in some foods, beverages and chewing gum. The levels found are usually small quantities.
Inhalation
Children may breathe fumes when products containing d-limonene, such as citrus-scented air fresheners, perfumes and candles, cleaners and paints, are used indoors, especially without adequate ventilation.
Through the skin
D-limonene can be absorbed through the skin after application of citrus essential oils, perfumes, soaps and other fragranced personal care products, and through skin contact with citrus-based cleaning
products.
Significant Statistics
In a 1991 test of 31 fragranced perfumes, soaps, and deodorants, limonene was found in over half.
Any citrus-based cleaning product, air freshener, perfume, essential oil or fragrance product is likely to contain d-limonene, particularly those that list oil of orange as an ingredient. For more on fragrances in household products, see Fragrances: What Your Nose Needs to Know.
How to minimize exposure to d-limonene
Ventilate well when using products that contain d-limonene or those with strong citrus odor. Some children may be bothered by the fumes, so keep them away.
Alternatives
Use natural deoderizers, such as baking soda, to absorb odors rather than masking them with fragrance-based air fresheners. See How To Freshen Indoor Air Naturally.
Instead of spraying air fresheners to block odors, improve indoor air quality with good ventilation.
Limonene can react with ozone, forming particulates. It is unlikely that levels would rise to levels that might trigger asthma.
In Florida, D-limonene is regulated as an air pollutant when released from citrus processing plants, because it can combine with nitrous oxide to form ozone, contributing to smog, on hot days. Department of Environmental Protection, Citrus Processors Sign Memorandum of Understanding to Reduce Pollution. State of Florida Department of Environmental Protection.
Dust mites are microscopic creatures, related to ticks and spiders, that live in house dust. The proteins in dust mite body parts and feces cause allergic reactions in people who have become sensitized to dust mite proteins. Dust mite allergen also triggers asthma attacks and is one of the most important causes of asthma attacks worldwide. Exposure to dust mites may also cause the onset of asthma. This is primarily because dust mites are found nearly everywhere, especially indoors. Therefore, exposure is constant.
All homes contain some amount of dust mites. The amount varies depending on the moisture and temperature in the home. Dust mites thrive in humid, warm environments. Because dust mites feed on dead human skin, the allergen tends to be concentrated in mattresses, bedding, upholstered furniture and carpets. They are very common in stuffed animals.
Additionally, pets that have fur or feathers contribute dander to the dust and increase the food source for mites.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus, D. farinae is Not Available
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus, D. farinae is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus, D. farinae is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical may cause cancer. It is considered a Possible Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Allergen
Asthma Trigger
Other
Typical allergy or hay fever symptoms, such as sneezing, runny nose or congestion, sore throat, sinus pain, itchy or watery, red eyes, headache.
Asthma symptoms, such as wheezing, coughing, difficulty breathing, tightness in the chest.
Eczema or skin rashes in infants and young children.
How Exposures Occur
Bedding and Mattresses
Dust mites concentrate especially in bedding and mattresses, where children are exposed to dust mite allergen by inhaling it in dust particles.
Carpets
Children can inhale dust mite allergen in dust particles that settle and collect in carpets.
Upholstered Furniture, Cushions and Other Soft Furnishings
Children can inhale dust mite allergen from dust particles collected in furniture upholstery, cushions, draperies and other fabric furnishings.
Stuffed Animals
Children can breathe dust mite allergen from dust particles collected in stuffed animals.
Airborne Dust Particles
Dust mite allergen can also be inhaled while it is airborne, though it tends to settle quickly.
Significant Statistics
Dust mites are present to some degree in nearly all human habitations.
“National Survey Examines Factors Related to High Levels of Dust Mite and Cockroach Allergens in Beds.” National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institute of Health, May 22, 2001.http://www.niehs.nih.gov/oc/news/atszeld.htm
Dust mites may be a factor in 50 to 80 percent of asthmatics.
A typical used mattress may have anywhere from 100,000 to 10 million dust mites inside. Ten percent of the weight of a two-year-old pillow can be composed of dead mites and their droppings.
High levels of dust mite allergens were found in bedding in 23 percent of homes sampled in the First National Survey of Lead and Allergens in Housing. Approximately 23.2 million U.S. homes have dust mite allergens at levels associated with asthma and allergies, this data suggests.
“National Survey Examines Factors Related to High Levels of Dust Mite and Cockroach Allergens in Beds.” National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institute of Health, May 22, 2001.
http://www.niehs.nih.gov/oc/news/atszeld.htm
Solutions
How to detect Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus, D. farinae
It is impossible for us to detect dust mites by visual inspection, because they are so tiny. Even when dust particles are not visible, it is possible that dust mite particles linger. Laboratory tests are available to determine if levels are high, but generally this is unnecessary as we can assume that dust mites are present in all homes.
How to minimize exposure to Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus, D. farinae
Eliminate or “Encase” Dust Mite Reservoirs:
• Remove Carpets: Wall-to-wall carpeting and padding are a significant dust mite traps, which release the allergen when disturbed by foot traffic and other movements on them. If possible, remove such carpets. Hardwood, tile and linoleum are much safer options. See Floor Coverings for information.
If you can’t live without carpet, choose natural fiber area rugs that can be cleaned easily. Short-pile rugs are the best. Try not to place the carpet on concrete. The warm space between a rug and concrete is a good place for mites to live. For more carpet and rug buying tips, see Carpets and Rugs.
• Encase mattresses in dust mite-proof covers. Tightly woven “barrier cloth” or airtight plastic-backed fabric or polyurethane covers should be placed over mattresses, boxsprings, pillows and comforters. Tape over the zippers with electrical or duct tape. Fabric encasements should be washed in very hot water (130 degrees Fahrenheit), while plastic encasements should be washed or damp sponged, every two weeks.
• Replace pillows filled with feathers, down or foam with synthetic fillings such as Dacron®.
• Keep stuffed toys off beds. An excellent substitute is a little cotton blanket which can be washed regularly.
Keep dust mite exposure low by thoroughly cleaning, especially in homes with infants.
—Wash your sheets, blankets, mattress pads and pillowcases in very hot water (130 degrees F) every week. Curtains should also be washed regularly, though not necessarily as often as bedding.
—Limit the number of stuffed animals to 2 or 3, wash them once a month in hot water (130 degrees F), and dry thoroughly in a hot dryer for 20 minutes. You can also kill dust mites in stuffed animals that cannot be washed by wrapping the stuffed animal in a plastic bag and placing it in the freezer for 4-5 hours.
—Vacuum carpets and upholstered furniture at least twice weekly. Keep your child in another room during and for several hours after vacuuming, because dust may leak out of the vacuum through the exhaust and remain airborne. Open windows while vacuuming to disperse dust. Substitute multi-layered vacuum bags for regular single layer bags, and use a vacuum with a high-efficiency, or HEPA, filter. Do not use a “bagless” vacuum, as dust mite allergen will be released when the collection container is removed for emptying.
—Damp-wipe dusty surfaces and mop floors weekly, especially in homes with small children, who spend much of their time on the floor.
—Avoid steam-cleaning bedding, upholstery and curtains. While the steam will kill mites, it fosters future mite growth by increasing humidity in the fabrics.
—Ventilate your home.
—NOTE: Avoid using anti-dust-mite carpet treatments that contain tannic acid or benzyl benzoate, both of which are skin, eye and respiratory irritants that can make asthma symptoms worse.
Dehumidify: Reduce indoor humidity to 30-50% by using an air conditioner or dehumidifier. Don’t put an aquarium, humidifier or other source of water in your bedroom.
Clean or replace filters on furnaces and air conditioners regularly, as recommended by the manufacturer. Install filters on air ducts, if appropriate.
Use an air purifier only as a last resort. These devices can help somewhat, but are ineffective if other measures have not been taken. Since dust mite allergen dust does not remain airborne for long, air purifiers are unlikely to remove much dust from the room. If you do purchase an air purifier, make sure it is adequate for the room size, and keep windows and doors closed while it is in operation.
Alternatives
Use plastic or wooden furniture instead of upholstered furniture.
Use pillows with synthetic fillings such as Dacron® instead of feathers, foam or down pillows. Use cotton blankets instead of wool or down blankets. Avoid down comforters and chenille bedspreads.
Curtains: Substitute easy-to-clean blinds or shades for curtains. Don’t forget to vacuum these regularly on both sides.
Heat from underfloor radiant heating systems will kill most mites on floors.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Olkowski, William, Sheila Daar, and Helga Olkowski. Common-Sense Pest Control: Least-Toxic Solutions for Your Home, Garden, Pets, and Community. Newtown, Conn.: Taunton Press, 1991.
Biological Pollutants in Your Home: CPSC Document #425. Consumer Product Safety Commission, Office of Information and Public Affairs.
http://www.cpsc.gov/cpscpub/pubs/425.html
Other government agencies
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences
Office of Communications
P.O. Box 12233
Research Triangle Park, N.C. 27709
919-541-3345
Diazinon is an insecticide in the organophosphate family. It is primarily used on lawns and gardens to control a variety of insect pests and in homes to control cockroaches, silverfish, ants and fleas. Diazinon is applied to some food crops. Diazinon is also used in pet care products to control fleas.
In late 2000, the manufacturers of diazinon agreed to a four-year phaseout of all indoor uses, all lawn and garden uses, and all other nonagricultural outdoor uses, after the EPA determined that diazinon poses health risks to humans, birds and other wildlife. By the end of 2004, diazinon should no longer be sold for use in homes, on lawns and gardens, and in pet products.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, diazinon is Very Highly Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, diazinon is Highly Toxic
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), diazinon is Very Highly Toxic
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is considered an Unclassifiable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Neurotoxin = Can harm brain and central nervous system
Other
In laboratory experiments, fetal rodents exposed to diazinon suffered from brain damage. Though there is no direct evidence in humans of fetal brain damage, the evidence is of great concern.
Contact may cause skin and eye irritation.
Repeated or long-term exposure may cause liver damage.
If inhaled or touched, can affect the central nervous system, causing headache, sweating, nausea, vomiting, tightness in the chest, abdominal cramps, diarrhea, and muscle twitching. In severe cases, may cause death.
Repeated or long-term exposure may cause headaches, muscle weakness, dizziness, and poor coordination. It may also cause personality changes, depression, anxiety, and irritability.
Exposure to diazinon and chlorpyrifos during pregnancy may result in smaller birth size for infants, according to a 2004 study. Women with higher diazinon and chlorpyrifos levels in their blood and umbilical-cord blood gave birth to lighter, shorter babies, with birth weights increasing again after government restrictions on the two insecticides, the study found.
How Exposures Occur
Contact with Treated Areas
After diazinon has been applied indoors or on lawns or gardens, children may be exposed by inhalation or by putting their hands in their mouths after touching treated turf or soil. Young children may also touch or ingest diazinon granules found on lawns or gardens. Children who touch or play with pets that have been treated with diazinon may also be exposed.
Pesticide Application and Drift
Children can inhale diazinon when it is being applied inside the home, on home lawns and gardens or when spray drifts from neighboring lawns, farms, or orchards.
In Water
Children could be exposed to low levels of diazinon in drinking water. Diazinon is not currently regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act but has been proposed to be added to the list of water contaminants restricted under the Act.
Through Food
Some samples of food tested by the government and analyzed by Consumers Union were found to contain residues of diazinon. Children could ingest diazinon on their food.
Significant Statistics
Diazinon is one of the leading causes of acute insecticide poisoning for humans and wildlife.
Diazinon is one of the most commonly found pesticides found in air, rain and fog.
Diazinon Revised Risk Assessment and Agreement with Registrants. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic Substances, December 2000. http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/op/diazinon/agreement.pdf
Even 24 hours after treatment of cracks and crevices with diazinon, children are exposed to up to 400 times the safe dose established by the U.S. EPA through skin contact, and up to 250 times through inhalation.
Occupational and Residential Exposure Assessment and Recommendations for the Reregistration Eligibility Decision Document for Diazinon. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Prevention, Pesticides, and Toxic Substances, March 2000.http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/op/diazinon/ore.pdf
Solutions
How to detect diazinon
Food: There is no way for parents to determine exactly how much diazinon may be in their children’s food. You can get a rough idea of the fruits and vegetables that may contain diazinon from:
Although diazinon is no longer sold for residential uses, it may be found in older pesticide formulas stored in the home or garage. Check to be sure diazinon is not listed as an ingredient before use. Lists of pesticides that contain diazinon can be found in the National Library of Medicine’s Household Products Database and in the PAN Pesticides Database.
How to minimize exposure to diazinon
Avoid the use of pesticides whenever possible, especially near children.
If you have any products containing diazinon, contact your local sanitation department or hazardous waste disposal program to find out how to dispose of pesticides properly. Earth 911 lists hazardous waste disposal sites by zip code.
Remove shoes at the door or use a doormat to wipe feet to prevent pesticides from being tracked indoors, where they can become embedded in carpets. Replace carpets with washable rugs and mop floors frequently to remove any residues.
Wash non-organic fruits and vegetables well and peel them when possible. Choose organic foods, if possible. A good place to start is with 10 Fruits and Vegetables to Buy Organic.
Alternatives
Choose least-toxic pest control methods, such as Integrated Pest Management, for your home, garden, lawn and shrubs. See Pest Control Without Pesticides. IPM strategies include preventive measures such as sealing leaks and cracks, fixing window screens, and reducing clutter in the home. In the garden, use beneficial insects and homemade insect repellents made of garlic or chilis.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Other government agencies
National Pesticide Information Center
Oregon State University
333 Weniger Hall
Corvallis, OR 97331-6502
800-858-7378
DDT is an organochlorine insecticide, once used extensively in the United States in agriculture and for the control of insects carrying malaria and typhus. In 1972, DDT was banned in the U.S., but the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the U.S. military may store and use DDT for public health emergencies. In many developing countries, public health officials continue to rely on DDT to control mosquitoes in an effort to halt the spread of malaria. DDT continues to be manufactured in the U.S. for export. Evidence of DDT�s estrogen-like action was first noted in 1950.
DDT is considered a persistent organic pollutant (POP), which tend to remain the environment and animals for long periods of time and can travel long distances. As a result, DDT has been found in animals, such as polar bears, whales and sea birds, quite distant from where it was used.
In the U.S., children are exposed to DDT through their food, particularly meat and dairy products, because DDT accumulates in animal fats.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) is Highly Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) is Highly Toxic
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is likely to cause cancer. It is considered a Probable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Neurotoxin = Can harm brain and central nervous system
Suspected Endocrine Disruptor = May interfere with, mimic or block hormones
Development Toxicant = Can interfere with normal development of a fetus or child
Reproductive Toxicant = Can harm reproductive system
Other
Reproductive effects have been observed in animals, including early onset of puberty in females, infertility, and sex reversal (fish). DDE (a breakdown product of DDT) may interfere with the mother’s ability to lactate; children of mothers with higher levels of DDE in their breast milk fed for shorter times. High DDE levels in mothers’ blood may also increase the likelihood of preterm birth and low birth weight.
California considers DDT compounds to cause reproductive toxicity to both males and females.
Impaired immune function.
Changes in the normal levels of thyroid hormone.
Chronic effects on liver, kidney, and nervous system (in laboratory animals).
Laboratory tests of animals have shown evidence of birth defects (abnormal tail development) and other developmental effects (impaired learning in maze tests). California considers DDT to be a developmental toxicant.
How Exposures Occur
Breast Milk
DDT has also been detected in human breast milk. However, the benefits for babies from breast feeding outweigh the risks of DDT exposure. Breast fed babies are healthier than bottle fed, with fewer allergies, respiratory illnesses, and skin problems. In its 1997 policy statement, Breastfeeding and the Use of Human Milk, the American Academy of Pediatrics highly recommends breast feeding for all infants for one year.
Food
Human exposure occurs from the consumption of foods containing DDT residues, such as meat, fish, poultry, dairy and root and leafy vegetables. Even though DDT has not been used since the 1970s, food continues to contain residues because DDT breaks down very slowly in soil. DDT also drifts on air currents from countries where it is still legal. Nevertheless, the ban on DDT in the U.S. has caused DDT residue on foods in the U.S. to decline in recent decades.
Our exposure to DDT from food primarily comes from meat and dairy products. Fruits and vegetables with the highest levels of DDT residues, according to Consumers Union, include: U.S. grown peaches, frozen winter squash, apples and green beans; Chilean peaches and strawberries; and Mexican tomatoes and spinach. DDT was detected in squash baby food, as well.
Significant Statistics
In 1991, the U.S. exported almost 96 tons of DDT.
Solutions
How to detect dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT)
Food: There is no way for parents to determine exactly how much DDT may be in their children’s food. You can get a rough idea of the fruits and vegetables that may contain DDT from:
How to minimize exposure to dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT)
Alternatives
Eat a balanced diet, with plenty of fruits and vegetables and a moderate level of low-fat meats and dairy products.
Choose certified organic foods, when possible, as they have not been treated with pesticides. A good place to start is with 10 Fruits and Vegetables to Buy Organic.
Consumer Reports recommends avoiding consumption of U.S. frozen winter squash due to high pesticide residue levels.
Peeling and washing fresh produce can help remove some surface pesticide residues, including DDT.
Reduce dietary fat to decrease DDT intake. Remove fat from meat as well as skin on chicken and fish, before cooking. Use cooking methods such as broiling, which allows fat to drip away from the food. Deep frying may seal in toxins. Saute and fry with vegetable oil rather than butter.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
�How Safe is Our Produce?� Consumer Reports (March 1999).
�Produce Safety: New Data on Pesticide Levels,� Consumer Reports (September 2000).
Report Card: Pesticides in Produce. Environmental Working Group, October 2003.
http://www.foodnews.org/reportcard.php
Other government agencies
U.S.Environmental Protection Agency
Persistent, Bioaccumulative and Toxic Chemical Program
Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics
1200 Pennsylvania Ave.
Washington DC 20460
202-260-2090
Methylene chloride is a solvent and volatile organic compound (VOC). Methylene chloride is widely used in paint and varnish strippers, metal degreasers, and some aerosol products, such as spray paints. These products release methylene chloride during use. Children may be exposed if nearby.
Methylene chloride is also used in the manufacture of photographic film and has been used to remove caffeine from coffee.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, dichloromethane is Highly Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, dichloromethane is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), dichloromethane is Slightly Toxic
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is likely to cause cancer. It is considered a Probable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Neurotoxin = Can harm brain and central nervous system
Other
If inhaled, can affect the central nervous system, causing slight decreases in hearing and vision (temporary), dizziness, numbness in fingers and toes, drowsiness, headache, nausea, weakness, and at high concentrations, unconsciousness and death.
Skin and eye irritation and burns, respiratory tract irritation.
Potential exacerbation of existing liver disease.
People with heart conditions may worsen after inhalation of dichloromethane, which is broken down into carbon monoxide by the body, depleting the blood of oxygen. This can cause cardiac arrhythmia.
In test animals, at high concentration, dichloromethane inhalation during pregnancy has caused delayed development of the bones of the developing fetus.
Can severe skin irritation.
How Exposures Occur
Drinking Water
Children can be exposed by drinking contaminated water.
Paint Strippers and Varnish Removers
Children can inhale methylene chloride when paint strippers, which can contain up to 60-80% methylene chloride, are used around the house.
Some Aerosol Products
Aerosol products such as spray paints and lubricants. Children can inhale methylene chloride if aerosol products containing it are sprayed in the home. If methylene chloride has been detected in your public water supply at higher than permitted levels, your local water utility is required to inform you by newspaper, radio, television, or other means.
Some Decaffeinated Coffees
Some decaffeinated coffees may contain traces of methylene chloride if that is the method used to extract caffeine.
Significant Statistics
Approximately 36 million pounds of methylene chloride were released into the U.S. environment in 1999.
“Dichloromethane (Methylene Chloride), CAS No. 75-09-2: Reasonably Anticipated to be a Human Carcinogen.” Tenth Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program, December 2002.http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/roc/tenth/profiles/s066dich.pdf
The EPA estimates that between 365 and 651 million pounds of methylene chloride are produced each year in the U.S.
“Dichloromethane (Methylene Chloride), CAS No. 75-09-2: Reasonably Anticipated to be a Human Carcinogen.” Tenth Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program, December 2002.http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/roc/tenth/profiles/s066dich.pdf
From 1987 to 1993, the largest releases of dichloromethane to the environment were from pharmaceutical and botanical manufacturers.
National Primary Drinking Water Regulations: Consumer Factsheet on Dichloromethane. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water, Ground Water and Drinking Water, Updated April 12, 2001.
http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/dwh/c-voc/dichloro.html
Solutions
How to detect dichloromethane
Read labels or request a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) on paint removers, spray paints, and other household products. Some MSDS are available on the internet at Vermont Safety Information Resources Inc. You can also request an MSDS from the manufacturer. The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission requires that all consumer products containing more than 1% methylene chloride carry a label warning that the contents may cause cancer.
Dichloromethane is regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act. This law requires that community water systems monitor dichloromethane levels, and make public when levels exceed the set Maximum Contamination Level (MCL). The MCL for dichloromethane has also been set at 5 parts per billion of water.
Community water systems are required to produce annual consumer confidence reports and mail them to every water customer.
If your water source is a well, your water is not monitored for contaminants as is required for public water supplies by the Safe Drinking Water Act. Private testing of the water is necessary.
Even if your water comes from a community water system, contaminant levels can vary from house to house. You can have your water tested by sending samples to a certified laboratory.
You can search for water quality reports from your water provider, obtain information on well water testing and find a list of state-certified drinking water laboratories at the U.S. EPA’s Office of Water’s website or call the EPA’s Safe Drinking Water Hotline, 800-426-4791.
You can check for products that contain dichloromethane (often listed as methylene chloride) at the National Institutes of Health Household Products Database.
How to minimize exposure to dichloromethane
Take great care when using products containing methylene chloride or avoid it altogether. Use methylene chloride only outdoors or with lots of ventilation and with skin protected from contact. Never use in enclosed or poorly ventilated areas. Do not use around children or if you are pregnant. People with heart problems should avoid products containing methylene chloride.
Alternatives
For stripping paint, make a thick paste with mineral washing soda (found in the laundry section of the supermarket) and water, wearing gloves to avoid skin contact with the soda, which can sting. Apply to surface with a putty knife. Leave on for several hours and keep damp by misting with water from a spray bottle. Rinse and peel off the paint.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
CPSC Urges Ventilation To Reduce Methylene Chloride Cancer Risk: Safety Alert, CPSC Document #5059. U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission.
http://www.cpsc.gov/CPSCPUB/PUBS/5059.html
Other government agencies
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
Division of Toxicology
1600 Clifton Road NE, Mailstop E-29
Atlanta, GA 30333
800-447-1544
Dieldrin is an organochlorine insecticide that is now banned in the U.S., but is highly persistent and still present in the environment. It was used in agriculture on cotton, corn and citrus crops, for public health to control diseases carried by insects, such as mosquitoes and tsetse flies, for termites, and as a wood preservative. The peak of dieldrin’s production occurred from the 1950s to the early 1970s. Dieldrin also forms as a breakdown product of aldrin, a similar organochlorine pesticide. Although dieldrin was banned in 1985 for nearly all uses in the U.S., aldrin’s use continued for termite control until 1987.
Dieldrin is considered a persistent organic pollutant (POP), which tend to remain in the environment and in the fatty tissue of animals for long periods of time and can travel long distances.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, dieldrin is Very Highly Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, dieldrin is Very Highly Toxic
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), dieldrin is Very Highly Toxic
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is likely to cause cancer. It is considered a Probable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Neurotoxin = Can harm brain and central nervous system
Suspected Endocrine Disruptor = May interfere with, mimic or block hormones
Other
Immune suppression.
Reproductive effects, including reduced fertility; reduced testosterone levels; delay in the descent of testicles.
Neurological effects, such as depression; anxiety; irritability.
Cancer: There is mixed evidence for association with breast cancer and breast cancer survival from several recent studies. However, most of the data in humans is considered inadequate. Dieldrin causes cancer in 7 different strains of laboratory mice.
How Exposures Occur
Breast Milk
Dieldrin is often present in breast milk. However, the benefits for babies from breast feeding outweigh the risks of dieldrin exposure. Breastfed babies are healthier than those who are bottle-fed; they experience fewer allergies, respiratory illnesses, and skin problems. In its 1997 policy statement, Breastfeeding and the Use of Human Milk, the American Academy of Pediatrics highly recommends breast feeding for all infants for one year.
Food
Low levels of dieldrin can be found in fish, meat, dairy products, and vegetables, in particular root vegetables, squash, melons and cucumbers. Since dieldrin is absorbed into the pulp of root vegetables, squash, melons and cucumbers, washing and peeling these vegetables doesn’t reduce exposure.
Children and adults primarily ingest dieldrin from meat and dairy products. However, the highest levels of dieldrin are found in squash.
Fumes in Older Homes
Homes that had been treated with dieldrin even two decades ago may still emit dieldrin fumes that can be inhaled by children. Since the pesticide penetrates deeply into the structure of a home, it can be difficult to eliminate.
Significant Statistics
Dieldrin was one of 12 pesticides that accounted for most of the risk in individual food items.
Groth, E., C.M. Benbrook, and K. Lutz. Update: Pesticides in Children’s Food, an Analysis of 1998 USDA PDP Data on Pesticide Residues. Consumers Union, May 2000.
http://www.consumersunion.org/food/pdpdc600.htm
Peak production of dieldrin in the U.S. occurred in the mid-1960s and is estimated at about 20 million pounds per year. Aldrin/dieldrin ranked second—after DDT—among agricultural chemicals used in the U.S.in the 1960s.
Dieldrin showed up in almost three-quarters of the frozen U.S. squash tested by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and reported on by Consumers Union.
Food: There is no way for parents to determine exactly how much dieldrin is in their children’s food. The primary source of dieldrin in food is meat and dairy products. Squash, root vegetables, cucumbers and melons may also contain unsafe levels. Freshwater fish may also contain dieldrin. You can get a rough idea of the fruits and vegetables that may contain dieldrin from:
To detect dieldrin residues in homes that may have been treated with it, air sampling by an accredited expert, such as an industrial hygienist, is recommended.
How to minimize exposure to dieldrin
It is difficult to eliminate dieldrin residues from homes that have been treated with dieldrin because the chemical typically becomes embedded in the structure.
Alternatives
Eat a balanced diet, with plenty of fruits and vegetables and a moderate level of low-fat meats and dairy products.
Choose certified organic foods, when possible, as they have not been treated with pesticides. A good place to start is with 10 Fruits and Vegetables to Buy Organic.
Reduce dietary fat to decrease dieldrin intake. Remove fat from meat as well as skin on chicken and fish, before cooking. Use cooking methods such as broiling, which allows fat to drip away from the food.
Consumer Reports recommends avoiding consumption of U.S. frozen winter squash due to high pesticide residue levels.
Peeling and washing of melons, cucumbers, squash and other vegetables will not significantly reduced the level of dieldrin residue, because this pesticide is absorbed into the flesh.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Do You Know What You're Eating? An Analysis of U.S. Government Data on Pesticide Residues in Foods. Consumers Union, February 1999.
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, diesel exhaust is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), diesel exhaust is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
Other
Solutions
How to detect diesel exhaust
How to minimize exposure to diesel exhaust
Alternatives
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Other government agencies
Nonprofit organizations
Other websites
diethanolamine
Also Known As:
DEA
Description
A foaming agent widely used in personal care products such as shampoos, hair dyes, and bath products. These products generally contain 1 to 5 percent DEA or DEA-related ingredients. DEA can also be found in some pesticide formulations, as a so-called inert ingredient.
Products containing DEA may be contaminated with nitrosamines, some of which may cause cancer, if the product contains nitrites as a preservative. Nitrosamines may accidentally contaminate DEA-containing products as well.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, diethanolamine is Moderately Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, diethanolamine is Moderately Toxic
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), diethanolamine is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is considered an Unclassifiable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Allergen
Other
Skin and eye irritation.
Some tests on laboratory animals suggest that DEA may cause liver or kidney tumors.
Tests on laboratory animals have shown damage to the testicles, reduced sperm activity, and effects on the liver, kidney, bone marrow, brain, spinal cord and skin from exposure to diethanolamine.
Immunotoxin
The National Toxicology Program found “clear evidence ” of carcinogenicity in male and female mice, but “no evidence” in male and female rats.
How Exposures Occur
Absorption Through Scalp and Skin
DEA in shampoos, conditioners, creams, cosmetics, hair dyes, bath products, and other personal care products may penetrate a child’s skin during normal use.
Inhalation
Children may breathe in DEA when pesticides containing DEA are sprayed near them.
Intraveneous (IV) Solutions
Diethanolamine solutions are used as solvents for numerous drugs that are administered intravenously.
Significant Statistics
European Union restricts DEA use to 1% of any cosmetic ingredient. But in the U.S., there are no such regulations. Manufacturers are advised by the Cosmetic, Toiletry and Fragrance Association to limit DEA usage to five times what is accepted in Europe.
As of 1980, the U.S. FDA analyzed 335 cosmetic products and found that 42% were contaminated with N- nitrosodiethanolamine. This nitrosamine contaminant of diethanolamine is considered a probable carcinogen.
“N-Nitrosodiethanolamine, CAS No. 1116-54-7: Reasonably Anticipated to be a Human Carcinogen.” Tenth Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program, December 2002.http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/roc/tenth/profiles/s126nitr.pdf
Solutions
How to detect diethanolamine
Read labels. On personal care products, look for DEA, diethanolamine, or DEA-related ingredients, including: Cocamide DEA, Cocamide MEA, DEA-Cetyl Phosphate, DEA Oleth-3 Phosphate, Lauramide DEA, Linoleamide MEA, Myristamide DEA, Oleamide DEA, Stearamide MEA, Triethanolamine (TEA), TEA-Lauryl Sulfate. These ingredients could also be contaminated with nitrosamines, a potentially cancer-causing byproduct of DEA.
As a precaution, discard products that contain DEA.
Alternatives
Natural shampoos and other personal care products are sold in natural foods stores. Some may contain DEA-related ingredients (see Detection), so check labels before purchasing. Shop for better personal care products using our CHEC List on Personal Care Products for Babies and Kids.
Choose organic pest control methods for your home, garden and lawn.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Bleifuss, Joel. “To Die For,” In These Times (February 17, 1996).
http://mc.net/~chwalisz/itt-cancer-cosm.htm
Cancer Prevention Coalition. “Diethanolamine: What is it?” Cancer Prevention Alert, No. 13, (1995).
http://www.preventcancer.com/pdf/dea.pdf
Epstein, Samuel, and David Steinman. The Safe Shopper’s Bible: A Consumer’s Guide to Nontoxic Household Products, Cosmetics and Food. New York: Macmillan Publishers, 1995.
Other government agencies
U.S. Food and Drug Administration
Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition
5100 Paint Branch Parkway
College Park, MD 20740-3835
888-INFO-FDA (888-463-6332)
There are 75 related forms of dioxin, all organochlorine compounds, which share similar properties. Dioxins are potent chemicals that are known to cause cancer and damage to the brain and central nervous system. The most toxic is 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-para-dioxin, or TCDD. Dioxins are now widespread in the environment.
Dioxins are byproducts of manufacture involving chlorine. They are formed during combustion and during the production of chemical compounds containing chlorine, such as pesticides and PCBs. The production and use of some chlorinated chemicals, bleaching of paper, and waste incineration, including the uncontrolled burning of residential waste, are the major sources of dioxins.
Dioxins are considered persistent organic pollutants (POPs), which tend to remain in the environment and animals for long periods of time and can travel long distances.
Children are exposed to dioxin through food, primarily meat and dairy products. Dioxin can cross the placenta to expose babies in the womb. Breastfed infants are also exposed to dioxin that has accumulated in breast milk. (All women have some amount of dioxin in their breast milk, and infants may receive concentrated levels of dioxin through breast milk.) Despite this, the American Academy of Pediatrics still recommends breast milk as the best food for babies. Even infant formulas can contain some amount of dioxins.
Fetuses and breastfeeding infants may be at particular risk from exposure to dioxins and dioxin-like compounds because they may cause harm to the developing brain and immune system.
Note: Toxicity information below is for TCDD. Other dioxins vary in their toxicity. TCDD is the most toxic of all dioxins.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, dioxins is Very Highly Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, dioxins is Very Highly Toxic
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), dioxins is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
Neurotoxin = Can harm brain and central nervous system
Suspected Endocrine Disruptor = May interfere with, mimic or block hormones
Development Toxicant = Can interfere with normal development of a fetus or child
Other
Developmental toxicity, including reduced viability, low birth weight, structural alterations, growth retardation, and functional alterations, such as effects on thyroid function, neurodevelopmental delays and impaired cognitive ability. Deformed toenails and fingernails.
Reproductive effects, including decreased sperm production, decreased testis weight, decreased testosterone levels, delayed puberty, and endometriosis have been observed in laboratory animals exposed to TCDD.
More girls than boys were born to couples exposed to dioxin in Seveso, Italy, after an accident involving dioxin.
Defects in development of teeth has been linked to consumption of dioxin-contaminated breast milk and to exposure from mothers accidentally exposed to high levels of dioxins and related compounds in cooking oil.
An association between exposure to dioxin and diabetes mellitus has been observed although a cause-effect relationship has not been established.
Exposure to high levels can cause chloracne, a severe acne-like skin rash associated with exposure to organochlorine chemicals.
How Exposures Occur
Food
Food accounts for 95 percent of human exposure to dioxin. Since dioxins accumulate in the fat of animals, the highest sources in the human diet are found in beef, pork, lamb, fish, shellfish, butter, cheese, processed meats, eggs, poultry, and milk. Dioxins can also be taken up by plants; usually the concentrations are considerably lower, though.
Breast Milk
Dioxins are also found in human breast milk. There is a potential for infants to receive fairly high levels of dioxin. However, the benefits for babies from breast feeding outweigh the risks of dioxin exposure. Breastfed babies are healthier than those who are bottle-fed; they experience fewer allergies, respiratory illnesses, and skin problems. In its 1997 policy statement, Breastfeeding and the Use of Human Milk, the American Academy of Pediatrics highly recommends breast feeding for all infants for one year. Note that an attempt to reduce dioxin in breast milk during pregnancy or postpartum will have no significant impact on the mother’s level or the baby’s exposure.
During Pregnancy
The fetus can be exposed through the placenta to dioxin that has accumulated in the mother’s body throughout her lifetime. Waiting until pregnancy to reduce dioxin intake has no significant impact on the mother’s level or the baby’s exposure.
Drinking Water
Dioxin released in the air can be deposited on the ground and then washed into water systems. However, dioxin is not very water-soluble. Most will bind to soils and sediment, and accumulate in animal tissue, making exposure to dioxin through water unlikely.
Significant Statistics
Food accounts for 95 percent of human exposure to dioxin.
EPA Draft Exposure and Human Health Reassessment of 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-Dioxin (TCDD) and Related Compounds, Part I: Estimating Exposure to Dioxin-Like Compounds. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development.
http://www.epa.gov/ncea/pdfs/dioxin/part1and2.htm
A young child’s intake of dioxins, furans (related compounds) and dioxin-like PCBs are over three times higher as compared to that of an adult, on a body weight basis.
EPA Draft Exposure and Human Health Reassessment of 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-Dioxin (TCDD) and Related Compounds, Part I: Estimating Exposure to Dioxin-Like Compounds. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development.http://www.epa.gov/ncea/pdfs/dioxin/part1and2.htm
Solutions
How to detect dioxins
Food: There is no way for parents to determine exactly how much dioxin is in their children’s food. The highest sources in the human diet are found in beef, chicken, pork, fish, shellfish, cheese, milk and eggs.
Avoid eating fish from bodies of water with fish advisories in effect. You can find state and federal fish advisories through our list of State Fish Consumption Advisory Links.
Dioxin levels tend to be highest in fatty fish from contaminated areas near industries that produce dioxin. The fish and seafood likely to have high dioxin levels include bluefish, Great Lakes lake trout and salmon, the mustard of crab, and tomalley of lobster. Generally, high fat-content, bottom fish, collected close to the contaminant source, have the highest levels, whereas lower-fat, nonstationary fish have much lower concentrations, even in the vicinity of the contaminant source. See our Fish Toxins chart (PDF) for more on dioxins and fish. For more information on which fish contain the highest toxin levels, see the Safe Fish CHEC List for Children, Teens and All Women of Child-bearing Age.
Drinking Water: Dioxin is regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act. This law requires that community water systems monitor dioxin levels, and make public when levels exceed the set Maximum Contamination Level (MCL). The MCL for dioxin is 0.00003 parts per billion.
Community water systems are required to produce annual consumer confidence reports and mail them to every water customer.
If your water source is a well, your water is not monitored for contaminants as is required for public water supplies by the Safe Drinking Water Act. Private testing of the water is necessary. Even if your water comes from a community water system, contaminant levels can vary from house to house. You can have your water tested by sending samples to a certified laboratory.
You can search for water quality reports from your water provider, obtain information on well water testing and find a list of state-certified drinking water laboratories at the U.S. EPA’s Office of Water’s website, or call the EPA’s Safe Drinking Water Hotline, 800-426-4791.
To find out whether dioxin has been released in your neighborhood, visit Environmental Defense’s Scorecard for chemicals or call the Community-Right-to-Know information line, 800-535-0202, for information on chemical releases in your state.
How to minimize exposure to dioxins
Avoid sauces made from liquid fish drippings or cooking water, and avoid stews and soups that call for whole fish with internal organs intact. Avoid the “mustard ” in blue crab and the “tomalley ” in lobster. See also: Safe Fish CHEC List.
Reduce consumption of high-fat meats, fish, poultry and dairy products such as butter, cheese and ice cream.
Efforts to keep dioxin exposure low MUST begin in childhood, since dioxin accumulates over time and does not break down for decades, in some cases. In 2003, an expert panel of the Institute of Medicine released a report, Dioxins and Dioxin-like Compounds in the Food Supply: Strategies to Decrease Exposure, which recommended following a low-fat diet with moderate amounts of animal foods, including low- or no-fat dairy products and fatty fish. The report stressed that lowering dioxin levels is particularly important for girls and young women, who will pass on some of the dioxin in their bodies to their children.
Alternatives
Eat a balanced diet, with plenty of fruits and vegetables and a moderate level of low-fat meats and dairy products. While organic foods are not any less likely to contain dioxins, they may contain fewer pesticides and other hormone disrupting chemicals. Mothers & Others’ New Green Diet is a good place to start.
Serve smaller portions of meat, choose low-fat or skim milk and dairy products, and reduce overall intake of animal products. This is particularly important for girls and women of child-bearing age.
Reduce dietary fat to decrease dioxin intake. Remove fat from meat as well as skin on chicken and fish, before cooking. Trim any darker meat along the top or center of the fillet. Use cooking methods such as broiling, which allows fat to drip away from the food.
Thornton, Joe. Pandora’s Poison: Chlorine, Health, and a New Environmental Strategy. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 2000.
Other government agencies
U.S.Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics
Persistent Bioaccumulative and Toxic (PBT) Chemical Program
1200 Pennsylvania Ave.
Washington DC 20460
202-260-2090
Diphacinone is a restricted use rodenticide in the indandiones family, used in and around buildings, sewers, landfills and in agricultural settings. Diphacinone, an anticoagulant, causes bleeding and blood-thinning. It is more effective against rats than mice. Children may come into contact with diphacinone in its powder, pellet or bait forms. It should never be used anywhere near children!
Diphacinone is also used for medical purposes.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, diphacinone is Very Highly Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, diphacinone is Very Highly Toxic
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), diphacinone is Highly Toxic
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is considered an Unclassifiable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Other
Hemorrhaging (bleeding), bloody discharge from nose, gums and eyes, loss of fluids, bloody stools and urine, coughing up of blood, bruising.
Lethargy,sleepiness,fever.
Inability to coordinate muscles, pain, dizziness.
Labored breathing.
Eye and skin irritation, bluish tint to skin.
Although no cases of developmental defects following the use of anticoagulants as rodenticides have been reported, anticoagulants prescribed for medical purposes can cross the placenta and are not recommended during pregnancy. High doses of diphacinone have adversely affected the pregnancies of laboratory animals. Chemicals in the same class as diphacinone are excreted in breast milk.
How Exposures Occur
Accidental Ingestion
Because warfarin may be applied in liquid, pellet or powder forms, a child could either touch the poison with his fingers, which could be swallowed when fingers are put in the mouth, or he could attempt to eat pellets or powder directly. Baits containing diphacinone that are not childproof could be opened by the child, who may then eat the poison.
Prenatal Exposure
The same chemical found in diphacinone is prescribed by medically for anti-clotting purposes. If a woman becomes pregnant while taking the medication, the chances of birth abnormalities are high.
Significant Statistics
According to American Association for Poison Control Centers, 20,206 people were exposed to rodenticides in 1999. Young children are the most common victims of exposure to rodenticides: 17,498 cases of exposure (87%) were children under six years of age.
Litovitz, Toby, et al. “1999 Annual Report of the American Association for Poison Control Centers Toxic Exposure Surveillance System,” American Journal of Emergency Medicine, Vol. 18, No. 5 (September 2000).
http://www.aapcc.org/Annual%20Reports/99report/Entire%20Report.pdf
Solutions
How to detect diphacinone
As of the 1998 Reregistration Eligibility Decision, the U.S. EPA will require that manufacturers of diphacinone incorporate an indicator dye, to help identify whether a child or pet has actually consumed the pesticide, and a bittering agent into the formulations. This should ensure that only children who are known to have swallowed the rodent poison are treated. (Some children receive the treatment as a precaution in cases where it is suspected, but not proven, that they have swallowed the poison.)
Know the ingredients of the rodenticide you are using. Read labels to determine if bromethalin is in products in your home or check PAN’s Pesticide Database for a list of brands and products containing this pesticide. If you hire a professional exterminator, ask for safety information, such as a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for the products used. New home owners should inspect carefully for rodenticide baits that may have been left by a previous owner.
How to minimize exposure to diphacinone
If your child swallows this rodenticide, contact a poison control center immediately.
Alternatives
Make your home unwelcoming to rodents. Eliminate the source of their livelihood, food and water, indoors and outdoors.
Block the rodent “doorways” to prevent entry. Cover holes with rodent-resistant materials, such as sheet metal (26 gauge or heavier), perforated metal (24 gauge or heavier with openings no more than 1/4 inch), hardware cloth (19 gauge or heavier with openings no more than 1/4 inch), brick with mortared joints, cement mortar (1:3 mixture ) or concrete (1:2:4 mixture).
Set a trap for the pesky mice or rats. Baited traps, such as snap traps, glueboards, and live animal traps, don’t require poisons. (Some glueboards and other traps may use pesticides. Avoid these!) Place the traps where rodents have been seen and near entry points. Remember to check them daily.
Endosulfan is a highly persistent, bioaccumulative, organochlorine insecticide used on fruits, vegetables, cotton, coffee, tea, tobacco, grains and nuts. It is also used as a wood preservative.
All residential uses of endosulfan were phased out in 2000.
In 2002, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) stopped permitting use of endosulfan on several food crops (beans, peas, spinach and grapes) due to concerns that young children were ingesting unsafe residue levels.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, endosulfan is Very Highly Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, endosulfan is Very Highly Toxic
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), endosulfan is Very Highly Toxic
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical may cause cancer. It is considered a Possible Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Neurotoxin = Can harm brain and central nervous system
Suspected Endocrine Disruptor = May interfere with, mimic or block hormones
Other
Although reproductive or developmental effects are unlikely at doses expected to be encountered by people, these effects have been observed in the laboratory. Specifically, damage to male and female reproductive organs have been observed in laboratory animals (damaged seminiferous tubules and lowered testes weights in male rats), low birth weight and length, and abnormalities in bone development in the offspring of dosed pregnant animals.
Neurobehavioral effects observed in laboratory animals, such as impaired learning and memory.
Immune function suppression has been observed in animals exposed to endosulfan.
Cardiovascular and blood effects observed in animals, including anemia (lowered red blood cell and hemoglobin count) and blood vessel aneurysms.
The kidney, testes, and possibly liver are affected in laboratory animals exposed to endosulfan over the long term.
Poisoning results in neurotoxic effects such as hyperactivity, muscle contractions, involuntary muscle movements, sensitivity to noise and light, incoordination, seizures, and convulsions. These clinical signs have been observed in humans accidentally exposed to endosulfan, and in animal studies. Endosulfan is also an eye irritant.
How Exposures Occur
Food
Food is the primary means of exposure to endosulfan. Endosulfan accumulates in fat. The highest concentrations can be found in the fatty tissue of meat and in full-fat dairy products.
Residues may also be present on produce. In the Total Diet Study, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration found the highest endosulfan residues on green peppers, green beans, pears, peaches, apples, grapes, strawberries, spinach, raisins, and squash. Some baby foods also contained endosulfan.
Water
Well water and public water supplies are not likely sources of exposure to endosulfan, although endosulfan may contaminate drinking water sources from agricultural run-off. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency monitors the level of endosulfan in lakes and streams, but currently does not regulate endosulfan in drinking water.
Tobacco
Endosulfan is used on tobacco plants. Smoking or chewing tobacco can result in exposure to pesticide residues.
Soil
The most likely exposure to endosulfan for people living near hazardous waste sites is through contact with soils containing it. Endosulfan or its breakdown product, endosulfan sulfate, has been identified at 17 of 1,177 sites identified by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) on its National Priorities List (NPL). However, we do not know how many of the 1,177 NPL sites have been evaluated for endosulfan or endosulfan sulfate.
Pesticide Application and Drift
Children can inhale endosulfan when spray drifts from neighboring farms and orchards.
Occupational
Children of farm workers and farm pesticide applicators are exposed to higher amounts of endosulfan and other pesticides, which can enter the home on clothing, shoes, etc.
Significant Statistics
In April 2000, Environmental Working Group reported that 5 out of 10 bags of Washington State apples sampled for organochlorine pesticides contained endosulfan residues.
Low levels of endosulfan have been reported in tree bark in remote regions of the world including the Orinoco rain forest of Venezuela. The results of this study are indicative of the persistent nature of this compound, as well as its widespread use.
Agricultural use of endosulfan poses a potential although small source of human dietary exposure to hexachlorobenzene and pentachlorobenzene, considered by the U.S. EPA to be possible human carcinogens.
DRINKING WATER: Endosulfan is not regulated by the Safe Drinking Water Act. However, you can find out if there is endosulfan in your water by having it privately tested. Contact one of the state certified drinking water laboratories listed on the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency web site.
How to minimize exposure to endosulfan
Eat a balanced diet, with plenty of fruits and vegetables and a moderate level of low-fat meats and dairy products.
Wash non-organic fruits and vegetables well and peel them when possible.
Choose certified organic foods, when possible, as they have not been treated with pesticides. A good place to start is with 10 Fruits and Vegetables to Buy Organic.
Reduce dietary fat to reduce exposure to persistent pollutants like endosulfan. Remove fat from meat as well as skin on chicken and fish, before cooking. Use cooking methods such as broiling, which allows fat to drip away from the food. Deep frying may seal in toxins.
In non-target wildlife, endosulfan has caused reproductive and developmental effects in birds, fish and mammals.
(Source: Reregistration Eligibility Decision for Endosulfan. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic Substances, November 2002.)
Endosulfan is harmful to wildlife. It is highly toxic to fish and birds, and moderately toxic to bees.
(Source: Pesticide Information Profile: Endosulfan. Extension Toxicology Network (EXTOXNET), Revised June 1996.)
Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) is the combination of two forms of smoke produced by burning tobacco products: sidestream smoke, or smoke that is given off by the burning end of a cigarette, pipe or cigar, and mainstream smoke, or the smoke that is exhaled by the smoker. The exposure of nonsmokers to ETS is also referred to as secondhand smoking, passive smoking and involuntary smoking.
There are approximately 4,000 identified chemicals present in tobacco smoke and ETS, and at least 250 of these have been found to be toxic or cause cancer. These include nicotine, cadmium, formaldehyde, benzene, benzo[a]pyrene, lead, nitrosamines and ammonia.
Nonsmokers (including developing fetuses) exposed to ETS absorb nicotine and other compounds just as smokers do, and the greater the exposure to ETS, the greater the level of these harmful compounds in the body.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) is Not Available
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
Allergen
Asthma Trigger
Other
Eye, nose, and respiratory irritation, nasal congestion, sore throat, hoarseness, nausea. Secondhand smoke can inflame airways and weaken the lung�s defenses against infection. It can also worsen symptoms in people with asthma, chronic bronchitis and allergies. Tobacco smoke may especially irritate the eyes of contact lens wearers.
Children of parents who smoke in the home are more likely to have breathing difficulties, respiratory infections, asthma and asthma attacks, eye and nose irritation, and infections in the middle ear. In addition, ETS exposure can increase the chances that a child will develop lung cancer, heart disease and cataracts later in life.
Exposure to secondhand tobacco smoke increases the risk of heart disease.
Birth defects. Tobacco smoke components, including nicotine, can cross the placenta, and mothers that smoke or are exposed to secondhand smoke during pregnancy are more likely to give birth to small babies with low birth weight. Other possible adverse effects may include an increased risk of spontaneous abortion, preterm delivery, and effects on learning and behavior in children.
Cancer. Exposure to secondhand smoke can cause lung cancer and cancer in the nasal sinuses. It may possibly increase the risk of breast, cervical, and bladder cancers as well. Exposure during childhood may be associated with development of cancer during adulthood.
Infants whose mothers smoke are at an increased risk of dying of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS), the major cause of death in infants between the ages of 1 month and 1 year.
How Exposures Occur
At Home
Children can breathe in secondhand tobacco smoke if parents or others smoke inside the home.
In Public Spaces
Children can be exposed to secondhand smoke in public places such as restaurants, bars, and outdoor sporting events.
In the Womb
Children can be exposed to tobacco smoke if the mother smokes or if she is exposed to secondhand smoke during pregnancy.
House Dust
Nicotine levels in house dust in the homes of smokers is higher than that in homes of nonsmokers. The level of other smoke-related chemicals may also be higher. Children could inhale or ingest this dust.
Significant Statistics
It is estimated that secondhand smoke increases the risk for lung cancer in nonsmokers by 20 percent.
Nearly 9 out of 10 nonsmoking Americans are exposed to environmental tobacco smoke, as measured by the levels of cotinine (a chemical the body metabolizes from nicotine) in their blood, a 1996 study of more than 10,000 blood samples found.
Exposure to Secondhand Smoke Widespread. U.S. Centers for Disease Control, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Promotion, Tobacco Information and Prevention Source, Updated November 2, 2000.http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/research_data/environmental/etsrel.htm
By 2020, tobacco-related illnesses are expected to kill more than eight million people worldwide and exceed infectious disease as the world’s leading cause of morbidity and mortality.
Secondhand smoke typically contains higher concentrations of ammonia (40 to 170 fold), nitrogen oxides (4 to 10 fold), and chemical carcinogens (e.g., benzene, 10 fold; N-nitrosoamines, 6 to 100 fold) than mainsteam smoke.
“Environmental Tobacco Smoke: Known to be a Human Carcinogen.” Tenth Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program, December 2002.http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/roc/tenth/profiles/s176toba.pdf
Each year in the U.S., exposure to environmental tobacco smoke is responsible for 9,700 to 18,600 cases of low-birth-weight infants annually, 8,000 to 26,000 new cases of asthma in children, exacerbation of asthma in 400,000 to 1 million children, and 150,000 to 300,000 cases of bronchitis or pneumonia in children aged 18 months and younger (of which 7,500 to 15,000 require hospitalization).
Approximately 43 percent of U.S. children ages 2 months to 11 years live in homes with at least one smoker, based on data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, conducted from 1988 to 1991. It is estimated that more than half of U.S. youth are exposed to ETS, and approximately 9 to 12 million children ages six and younger are exposed to ETS in their homes.
“Environmental Tobacco Smoke: Known to be a Human Carcinogen.” Tenth Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program, December 2002.http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/roc/tenth/profiles/s176toba.pdf
Environmental tobacco smoke accounts for about 5 percent of benzene exposures. Benzene is a known human carcinogen.
Solutions
How to detect environmental tobacco smoke (ETS)
Cigarette smoke can be detected by its odor.
How to minimize exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS)
Eliminate tobacco smoke from your home, especially if you have small children or are pregnant. Do not smoke inside your home or permit others to do so; any smoking should be done outside.
Ventilation systems and air purifiers/filters cannot filter and circulate air well enough to eliminate secondhand smoke.
Blowing smoke away from children, going into another room to smoke, or opening a window may help reduce children�s exposure but will not fully protect them from the dangers of secondhand smoke.
A child’s momentary absence from a room is not enough to protect them if someone has smoked there.
As a rule of thumb, treat smoking in a room as an insecticide application: ventilate by opening windows and using fans for hours before readmitting children.
Quit Smoking. Non-smoking nicotine products, such as patches, gum, inhalers, and nasal spray, can curb nicotine cravings without exposing yourself, your children and others to harmful substances in tobacco smoke.
For tips on quitting, see Clearing the Air: How to Quit Smoking…and Quit for Keeps, published by the National Cancer Institute.
Avoid taking children where smoking is permitted, especially if the concentration of smoke may be high there, such as in smaller enclosed spaces with a number of people smoking and with little or no ventilation.
Do not smoke in your car�the high concentration of smoke in a small, closed compartment substantially increases the exposure to other passengers.
After returning home from a smoky place, don’t keep smoke-filled clothes in the same room as children.
Alternatives
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Secondhand Smoke in Your Home. U.S. Centers for Disease Control, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Tobacco Information and Prevention Source, Updated November 2, 2000.
Secondhand Smoke: What You Can Do About Secondhand Smoke as Parents, Decision-Makers, and Building Occupants. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, July 1993.
http://www.epa.gov/smokefree/pubs/etsbro.html
Other government agencies
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Office on Smoking and Health
Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion
Mail Stop K-50
4770 Buford Highway NE
Atlanta, GA 30341
800-CDC-1311
Fipronil is a broad-spectrum insecticide, used to control cockroaches, ants, fleas, mole crickets, ticks, mites, subterranean termites, and agricultural pests. It is found in flea treatments for cats and dogs, such as Frontline®, and roach and ant bait traps for indoor use in both residential and commercial settings. Fipronil may also be applied outdoors for ornamentals, lawns and on rice and corn crops.
Fipronil disrupts the insect’s central nervous system and is a suspected endocrine disruptor. Concerns about human exposure to Frontline spray treatment were raised in 1996 by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, due to the risk of chronic inhalation and skin absorption by commercial pet groomers and veterinarians. This led to a denial of registration for the spray product in New York State. In 1999, upon reviewing additional data, the product was registered. Fipronil use in agricultural settings has also raised concerns about harm to bees and other beneficial insects.
Fipronil is considered safer than other pet flea and tick products, such as those containing carbaryl, malathion, dichlorvos or naled.
Children can be exposed to fipronil by touching treated pets or by opening baits and putting them in their mouths. They could also ingest residues of fipronil by eating foods treated with the pesticide.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, fipronil is Highly Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, fipronil is Highly Toxic
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), fipronil is Highly Toxic
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
Suspected Endocrine Disruptor = May interfere with, mimic or block hormones
Other
Solutions
How to detect fipronil
How to minimize exposure to fipronil
Alternatives
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
"Health Threats & Effects: Harmful Pet Products," Natural Resources Defense Council, October 31, 2000.
Fluoride is a naturally occurring ion of fluorine, an element that is abundant in the Earth’s crust. Calcium fluoride and sodium fluoride compounds occur naturally in water (including most surface and ground water supplies) and air. They are also released as polluting byproducts of many industrial processes, such as aluminum, steel and fertilizer manufacturing, coal-burning power plants and glass and cement production.
Fluoride has been embraced by the medical community and public agencies for its ability to prevent tooth decay. In addition to fluoride toothpastes and supplements, fluoride has been added to the municipal drinking-water supplies of nearly two-thirds of the U.S. population. Safety concerns have made fluoridation of water a controversial topic in some areas of the country.
While low doses of fluoride does protect enamel, fluoride can be toxic at high doses. In fact, fluoride toothpaste tubes bear warnings to avoid ingestion. Overexposure in children has been linked to dental fluorosis, in which teeth are permanently stained or pitted. Excessive fluoride ingestion may also cause bone fragility and tenderness.
Current research does not provide evidence of a link between fluoride and cancer. However, the data has not been sufficient for cancer agencies to make a determination of fluoride’s status as a carcinogen.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, which regulates fluoride levels in water supplies, has set a legal limit of 4 milligrams of fluoride per liter of water (mg/l), warning that some people who drink water containing fluoride in excess of this level over many years could develop bone disease. EPA has also recommended (but does not require) a lower limit of 2 mg/L to protect against dental fluorosis, and advises that children under nine should not drink water that has more than 2 mg/L of fluoride.
A number of towns and cities have resisted fluoridation, including Newark, NJ, Honolulu, HI and Worcester, MA. Nevertheless, the American Dental Association and the EPA maintain that fluoridated water is safe. Currently, the National Research Council is undertaking a review of the data on fluoride.
In addition to toothpastes, fluoride supplements, and fluoridated drinking water, children ingest fluoride in infant formula and beverages made with fluoridated water. Fluoride may also be present in foods grown in soil containing fluoride or irrigated with fluoridated water and in milk from cows raised on fluoride-containing water and feed. (EHP)
To avoid excessive exposure for children under the age of nine, consider using a non-fluoridated toothpaste if your drinking water is fluoridated. Very young children should not be given fluoride toothpaste, as they are likely to swallow it.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, fluoride is Highly Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, fluoride is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), fluoride is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is considered an Unclassifiable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Other
Children who ingest fluoride during the years when the enamel of their permanent teeth is still forming (up to 6-8 years of age) may develop dental fluorosis, a condition in which permanent teeth are irreversibly mottled and stained. National surveys indicate that as many as 22 percent of U.S. children have fluorosis, with even higher rates in some areas with fluoridated drinking water. (EHP)
Ingesting elevated levels of fluoride over many years may cause fluoride to accumulate in the bones, leading to skeletal fluorosis, in which bones become brittle and tender. (EPA, Hileman, WHO)
New research suggests that low levels of fluoride may have developmental effects and effects on the brain.
Decreased rates of tooth decay (dental caries).
Solutions
How to detect fluoride
How to minimize exposure to fluoride
Alternatives
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Other government agencies
National Library of Medicine's Household Products Database
This international coalition maintains that fluoride is toxic and therefore should not be used in public water supplies. They have published numerous documents against fluoridation.
The ADA endorses fluoridation of water to protect the public against tooth decay. The have published a good deal of information on their website in favor of fluoridation.
Formaldehyde is a strong smelling, volatile organic compound (VOC) and common indoor air pollutant. It is a naturally occurring chemical that is also produced synthetically in large quantities for consumer products, building products such as manufactured woods, and industrial purposes to make plastics and chemicals.
Formaldehyde is a common ingredient in adhesives and finishes. Formaldehyde fumes can enter indoor air from plywood, particleboard, fiberboard, permanent press clothing and draperies, some types of foam insulation, fiberglass, carpets and carpet glues, and some paints and floor finishes. Woods made with urea formaldehyde resins emit higher levels of formaldehyde than those made with phenol formaldehyde.
Formaldehyde is also a component of automobile exhaust. Some fingernail polishes and hardeners contain formaldehyde as well.
Carpets do not contain significant amounts of formaldehyde. However, carpets can trap formaldehyde within its fibers from other sources. This trapped formaldehyde may be released later when humidity and temperature changes occur.
Children may be exposed to formaldehyde fumes in indoor air. Levels may be particularly high in rooms containing a lot of manufactured wood furnishings and plastics, such as mobile homes, trailer homes, and temporary buildings, especially if ventilation is poor.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, formaldehyde is Very Highly Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, formaldehyde is Highly Toxic
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), formaldehyde is Very Highly Toxic
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
Allergen
Asthma Trigger
Other
Allergy like reactions, such as watery eyes, burning sensations in the eyes, nose and throat, stuffy nose, skin rashes. Allergic skin rashes and dermatitis may occur from skin contact with permanent-press clothing or other finishes that contain formaldehyde.
Flu-like symptoms, headache, fatigue, nausea.
Inhaling formaldehyde fumes can cause respiratory problems and asthma-like symptoms, such as breathlessness, shortness of breath, wheezing, coughing and/or chest tightness. Repeated exposures may cause bronchitis, with symptoms of cough and shortness of breath.
Formaldehyde has been linked to a rare form of nasopharyngeal cancer and may also be linked to cancer of the nose and throat in humans. Test animals exposed to formaldehyde fumes have developed nasal cancer. Epidemiological studies show an association between formaldehyde and leukemia but scientists have not been able to show how this might occur. While the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has ranked formaldehyde a “probable” human carcinogen, the World Health Organization recently upgraded its classification to “known,” concluding that formaldehyde “is carcinogenic to humans.”
How Exposures Occur
Air Fresheners
Air fresheners sprayed in the house, may contribute to formaldehyde generation, through indoor chemistry reactions, especially in the summer. Rates of formaldehyde production may be quite significant (hundreds of ug/hr) and comparable to those from insulation products.
Cleaners, Disinfectants, Fabric Softeners
Some household products may contain formaldehyde as a preservative or fabric finish.
Furniture and Flooring
Pressed Wood Furniture, Flooring, Subflooring, Cabinetry, and other manufactured wood products; Fiberglass: Children can inhale formaldehyde from cabinets, shelves, wood-veneer furniture, laminated flooring, floor underlayments, paneling, and doors made of particleboard, hardwood plywood, and medium density fiberboard (MDF). These pressed woods are bonded with resins containing formaldehyde. Pressed woods made with urea formaldehyde resins emit higher levels of formaldehyde than those made with phenol formaldehyde. Decorative wood laminates may also emit formaldehyde, though at lower levels than pressed woods. Formaldehyde emissions are highest from new pressed woods and will gradually subside over time.
Some fiberglass products, including insulation, may also emit formaldehyde.
Gas Appliances, Fireplaces, Automobile Exhaust
Children can inhale small amounts of formaldehyde when materials such as wood, kerosene, cigarettes and natural gas are burned inside the home, particularly if gas or kerosene heaters are unvented. Outdoors, children can inhale formaldehyde from vehicle exhaust and smog in outdoor air, but generally at lower amounts than those found indoors. Outdoor formaldehyde levels are typically higher in urban areas.
Nail Polish and Hardeners, Cosmetics
Children can inhale formaldehyde if nail polishes or hardeners are being used nearby. These products emit high levels of formaldehyde when wet that drop sharply as the polish dries. However, because they are used to cover a small surface area,exposure is likely to be minor. Teens working in, or children living above, nail salons are more likely to be exposed to significant levels of formaldehyde, however. Formaldehyde is also used as a preservative in some blushes, facial powders, and other cosmetics.
Permanent Press Fabrics, Draperies, Some Coated Paper Products
Children can inhale formaldehyde from the fabric finish that provides a “permanent press ” quality to new fabrics and draperies, and they can absorb it through their skin from touching treated clothing or bedding for extended periods of time. Emission rates from unwashed new fabrics may rival that of insulation products and are similar to those from paints and finishes. Formaldehyde levels on treated fabrics greatly subside with each washing.
Some papers, including paper bags and paper towels, may be coated with small amounts of finish containing formaldehyde. Generally, emissions from this source is fairly small.
Some Latex Paints, Floor Finishes and Wallpaper Adhesives
These products can emit high levels of formaldehyde when wet, although emissions should quickly decline as these coatings dry. Children can inhale formaldehyde during or soon after application, particularly if homes are not adequately ventilated. Some commercially-applied acid-cured floor finishes contain large amounts of formaldehyde and could continue to emit substantial amounts even after drying.
Significant Statistics
Levels of formaldehyde in air as low as 0.1 ppm (0.1 part formaldehyde per million parts of air) can cause watery eyes, burning sensations in the eyes, nose and throat, stuffy nose, nausea, coughing, chest tightness, wheezing, skin rashes, and allergic reactions.
Formaldehyde ranks among the top 25 chemicals produced in the U.S., with approximately 11.3 billion pounds manufactured nationwide in 1998.
“Formaldehyde (Gas), CAS No. 50-00-0.” Tenth Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program, December 2002.http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/roc/tenth/profiles/s089form.pdf
Solutions
How to detect formaldehyde
Inspect new wood products. Many furnishings are made with pressed woods. Look at an unfinished or cut end of the wood, or under upholstery. Fiber and particleboard looks like wood chips or sawdust glued together. Plywood is sheets of wood that has been glued and pressed together—at a cut end of the board, you will see layers of wood glued together. Formaldehyde has a distinct, strong odor that is emitted by new or wet formaldehyde products.
Read labels on building products, cleaners, cosmetics. Look for formaldehyde, urea formaldehyde (UF), or phenol formaldehyde (PF). Note: Pressed woods containing PF resins generally release much lower levels of formaldehyde into the air and are, therefore, preferable to those made with UF resins. You can also request a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) from product manufacturers, which must be provided.
Toll-free numbers for consumers are typically listed on the product label or packaging. You may also find MSDS sheets online at Vermont Safety Information Resources Inc.
Watch for unexplainable health effects after purchasing new furnishings or moving into a new or remodeled home. In these and mobile, or trailer, homes, formaldehyde may cause unexplainable headaches, fatigue, watery or burning eyes, stuffy nose, or throat irritation. If these symptoms go away or subside when you are away from home or office but reappear upon your return, they may be caused by formaldehyde or other indoor air pollutants.
Formaldehyde can cause health effects even when an odor cannot be detected. If odor is detected, it is likely that levels have reached a range that requires action.
How to minimize exposure to formaldehyde
Ventilate! Open windows and use fans and air conditioning to dilute formaldehyde concentrations with fresh air and to push it outdoors. Ventilation will also reduce moisture and heat buildup. High humidity and heat can cause products to release formaldehyde more readily. In damp regions, dehumidifiers will also help reduce indoor moisture levels.
Always open windows and use fans when painting indoors. And keep children and pregnant women away from the fumes!
Seal unfinished pressed wood items with paint, varnish, or water-based polyurethane sealant. Use a finish that does not itself contain formaldehyde and ventilate well while applying.
Allow new particleboard furnishing and wood to release formaldehyde fumes outdoors or in a well-ventilated, unoccupied space (such as the garage) for a few weeks before bringing into the living space. Be sure to remove all coverings or packaging to allow for maximum release. Increasing heat may speed up the release of fumes.
Wash new clothing and bedding before use to remove formaldehyde-containing fabric finishes. Try to avoid buying permanent press fabrics. Air out new draperies outdoors, in the garage or in an unoccupied, but well-ventilated, area of your home for a few days.
Do not smoke or use unvented kerosene heaters indoors. Make sure fireplaces and wood stoves are not leaking exhaust inside the house; keep chimneys and exhaust pipes clean.
Do not rely on air purifiers to remove formaldehyde from indoor air. Air purifiers are generally not designed to remove gaseous pollutants. Ozone-generating purifiers may contribute to formaldehyde concentrations.
If a pressed wood must be used (in construction, for example), ask retailers for help in choosing lower-emission PF (phenol formaldehyde) woods when possible. Among pressed woods made with urea formaldehyde resins, plywood releases less formaldehyde than particleboard and medium-density fiberboard.
Ecological alternatives to pressed woods exist. See A Sane Home for more information.
Choose untreated clothing and bedding, made of natural or organic fibers, when possible. See Pick Your Cotton for more information.
Formaldehyde-free nail polishes and other cosmetics are available at conventional drugstores and natural foods stores. According to the Environmental Working Group, the following brands of nail polish are among those that do not contain formaldehyde, phthalates or toluene: L’Oréal Paris Jet-Set Quick Dry Nail Enamel®, Revlon Nail Enamel®, Garden Botanika Natural Color Nail Color®, and Kiss Products Kiss Colors®.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
An Update On Formaldehyde: 1997 Revision (CPSC Document #725).U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, 1997.
http://www.cpsc.gov/cpscpub/pubs/725.html
Public Health Statement for Formaldehyde.Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, July 1999.
http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/phs111.html
The Inside Story: A Guide to Indoor Air Quality.U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, Office of Radiation and Indoor Air, April 1995.
http://www.epa.gov/iaq/pubs/insidest.html
Other government agencies
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Ariel Rios Building
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Washington DC 20460-0003
Indoor Air Quality Hotline: 800-438-4318
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, glycols is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), glycols is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
Other
Solutions
How to detect glycols
How to minimize exposure to glycols
Alternatives
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Other government agencies
Nonprofit organizations
Other websites
glyphosate
Also Known As:
Roundup®
Description
A broad spectrum, systemic herbicide widely used by homeowners, lawn care professionals and farmers. Glyphosate kills unwanted plants in home and public lawns and gardens, on roadsides, in forests, near waterways, and on and around crops. Some food crops, such as soy and cottonseed, have been genetically engineered to withstand Roundup®, Monsanto’s formulation of glyphosate, raising concerns that farmers will increase their usage of this chemical.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, glyphosate is Moderately Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, glyphosate is Moderately Toxic
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), glyphosate is Moderately Toxic
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical may cause cancer. It is considered a Possible Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Other
Skin and eye irritation. Some glyphosate formulations may cause stronger irritation due to the addition of a surfactant labeled as an inert ingredient, polyethoxethyleneamine (POEA).
If inhaled, can cause respiratory, nose and throat irritation, lung congestion and increased breathing rate.
If swallowed, can cause nausea, vomiting, dizziness, diarrhea, low blood pressure, convulsions, irregular heartbeat, or death.
May cause liver or kidney damage, or reproductive effects, for example, if ingested in drinking water over a lifetime at levels above those permitted by the U.S. EPA for drinking water.
How Exposures Occur
Absorption through the Skin
Glyphosate may penetrate children’s skin after they touch residues on plants and soil that have been treated.
Inhalation
Children may breathe in glyphosate during a spray application or when spray drifts from neighboring lawns or farms.
Drinking Water
Glyphosate may contaminate drinking water supplies.
From Soy Products
Increasingly soy is grown from genetically modified seed which can live through high doses of glyphosate. Late sprayings could mean some residue on soybeans, which are used in processed foods, such as infant formula.
Significant Statistics
In the U.S., glyphosate is the second most widely used pesticide by farmers, homeowners and lawn care professionals. Between 83 and 95 million pounds were applied nationwide in 1999.
Sales of glyphosate (Roundup) have steadily increased since its manufacturer, Monsanto, introduced Roundup Ready soybeans, genetically modified to resist glyphosate, in the mid-1990s. Global sales of Roundup increased by 6% in 2000 alone.
Read labels to determine whether you have glyphosate-containing herbicides in your home or garage.
You can also find out if glyphosate is an ingredient in a pesticide product on Pesticide Action Network Pesticide Database.
Glyphosate herbicide sprays can drift. Tell-tale signs include drooping or browning leaves along the border of a neighboring agricultural crop, garden or roadway.
Drinking Water
a) Glyphosate is regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act. This law requires that community water systems monitor glyphosate levels, and inform the public when levels exceed the set Maximum Contamination Level (MCL). The MCL for glyphosate is 0.7 parts per million.
Drinking Water
b) Community water systems are required to produce annual consumer confidence reports and mail them to every water customer. Water quality reports from your water provider online on the web site of the U.S. EPA’s Office of Water, or call the Safe Drinking Water Hotline, 800-426-4791.
Drinking Water
c) If your water source is a well, your water is not monitored for contaminants as is required for public water supplies by the Safe Drinking Water Act. Private testing of the water is necessary. The EPA maintains an information page for private well owners regarding the testing and maintenance of well water.
Drinking Water
d) Even if your water comes from a community water system, contaminant levels can vary from house to house. You can have your water tested by sending samples to a certified laboratory. The U.S. EPA has a list of state certified drinking water laboratories.
Avoid the use of pesticides whenever possible, especially near children.
Contact your local sanitation department or hazardous waste disposal program to find out how to dispose of pesticides properly. Earth’s 911 lists hazardous waste disposal sites by zip code.
Maintaining a healthy lawn is your best defense against weedy invaders. For more information about how to accomplish this, see Natural Lawn Care.
Certified organic soy foods don’t contain Roundup Ready soybeans, but watch for soy-based additives such as lecithin or soybean oil that may not be organic. For information on avoiding genetically modified foods, see Mothers & Others’ Food, Farms and Genetic Engineering Consumer Action Kit.
Use a doormat to wipe feet or take shoes off at the door to prevent pesticides from being tracked indoors. Replace carpets with washable rugs and mop floors frequently to remove any residues.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Cox, Carolyn. “Managing Weeds at Home and in Our Communities,” Journal of Pesticide Reform, Vol. 17, No. 1 (Spring 1997).
http://www.pesticide.org/managing.pdf
"Alternatives: Lawn Care Without Pesticides," Journal of Pesticide Reform, Vol. 12, No. 2 (Spring 1992).
http://www.pesticide.org/lawns.pdf
Lappé, Marc. Corralling Roundup. Center for Ethics and Toxics, 1996.
http://www.cetos.org/articles/corralroundup.html
Lappé, Marc. Chemical Fact Sheet: Roundup, Active Ingredient, Glyphosate. Center for Ethics and Toxics, May 1999.
http://www.cetos.org
Other government agencies
National Pesticide Information Network
Oregon State University
333 Weniger Hall
Corvallis, OR 97331-6502
800-858-7378
In 1996, the New York Attorney General filed a lawsuit against the Monsanto Company for engaging in “false and misleading” claims by advertising Roundup as safe and rapidly biodegradable; Monsanto negotiated a settlement, agreeing to stop making such claims about Roundup’s safety.
Cox, Caroline. “Herbicide Factsheet: Glyphosate (Roundup),” Journal of Pesticide Reform, Vol. 18, No. 3 (Fall 1998, Updated January 2002).
Some glyphosate-containing products contain inert ingredients that are more toxic than glyphosate alone. The surfactant in some formulations of glyphosate, polyethoxethyleneamine (POEA), increases the severity of skin irritation, Other inert ingredients in glyphosate products include ammonium sulfate, 3-iodo-2-propynyl butylcarbamate, potassium hydroxide, isopropylamine and others. These ingredients may increase the toxicity of the product or produce other harmful effects not associated with the primary ingredient, glyphosate.
Cox, Caroline. “Herbicide Factsheet: Glyphosate (Roundup),” Journal of Pesticide Reform, Vol. 18, No. 3 (Fall 1998, Updated January 2002).
Lead is a highly toxic, naturally occuring heavy metal that was once found in a wide variety of products, including paints, gasoline, PVC (vinyl) plastic, pipes, ceramic glazes, and caulk. Lead continues to be used in the production of batteries, ammunition, metal products (solder and pipes), devices to shield X-rays, and computer monitors to block radiation.
Though the U.S. government decreased the allowable levels of lead in paints and gasoline to negligible levels in the late 1970s, lead still poses a significant threat to growing children. Even low levels of lead over time can harm children, sometimes permanently. The most significant sources of lead continue to be old paint in homes built before 1978, lead pipes placed before the 1930s, and soil by highways and heavily traveled roads.
Note: Toxicity information below is based on data on elemental lead and its inorganic compounds. The form of the lead found in paint and ceramic glazes is inorganic.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, lead is Highly Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, lead is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), lead is Highly Toxic
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is likely to cause cancer. It is considered a Probable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Neurotoxin = Can harm brain and central nervous system
Development Toxicant = Can interfere with normal development of a fetus or child
Reproductive Toxicant = Can harm reproductive system
Other
Learning disabilities; memory loss; decreased IQ and poor performance in school; difficulty understanding directions; reduced eye-hand coordination
Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD); hyperactivity; aggression; delinquency or anti-social behavior; and other behavioral problems
Hearing impairment; stunted growth; peripheral neuropathy, or the failure of the nerves that relay information between the brain and spinal cord, causing pain, loss of sensation, and inability to control muscles.
Kidney dysfunction; gout; poor absorption or synthesis of nutrients; increased blood pressure; cardiovascular ailments such as coronary artery disease, peripheral vascular disease, atherosclerosis, and hypertension.
Reproductive effects including decreased fertility, increased rates of miscarriage, pre-term delivery, low birth weight, low sperm count, erectile dysfunction, abnormal sperm shape and size.
Accumulated lead exposure has been linked to the development of cataracts in older men.
How Exposures Occur
Paint
A child may swallow or chew on crumbling paint and paint chips. She or he could also swallow or breathe paint dust that is created by friction when opening windows and doors. Children can also be exposed by chewing on window sills, railings, edges of stairs and other child-accessible surfaces. Remodeling activities, such as sanding, scraping paint and tearing down walls, in homes built before 1978, can disperse lead dust throughout the house.
Pregnant women who are exposed to high levels of lead dust can pass on lead to the fetus.
Some Fertilizers
Fertilizers made from recycled industrial byproducts and waste may contain heavy metals, including lead.
Work-related
Parents can bring lead home on clothing or shoes from their workplaces, such as construction sites and firing ranges. The babies of pregnant women in these and other occupations involving lead are at higher risk.
Soil
Lead can be especially high in soil near highways and busy streets due to leaded gasoline emissions before 1995. Soil around homes painted with lead-based paints and soil under bridges may be contaminated with lead paint residues. Additionally, soil near current or former industrial sites may have high levels of lead from air emissions or dumping.
Children can ingest this soil accidently while playing. Contaminated soil can also be tracked indoors and deposited on carpets and floors, where children may come into contact with it.
Drinking Water
Lead is regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act. However, it can be contaminated en route to your faucet. Old pipes and water mains made of lead or joined with lead solder can release lead into drinking water as it passes through. Contamination can occur from municipal water mains that have not been replaced with safer pipes or from old pipes with in the home. Plumbing installed before 1930 is most likely to contain lead, although lead solder use continued beyond this date into the 1980s. Between 10 and 20 percent of a child’s total lead exposure comes from drinking water.
Some Glazed Ceramic Dishes and Leaded Crystal
Lead in dishes made with leaded glass or finished with lead glazes can leach into food or water stored in them. Imported dishes, from Mexico, China and other developing countries, are more likely to be glazed with leaded materials.
“Litargirio” Powder Natural Remedy
Litargirio, a yellow- or peach-colored powder manufactured by Roldan, Ferreira, and other laboratories in the Dominican Republic, contains up to 79 percent lead. The powder is used as a deodorant, foot fungicide, burn and wound treatment, and for other medicinal purposes. It is sold in 2-inch by 3-inch clear packets by stores catering to Spanish-speaking customers, particularly those from the Dominican Republic.
Calcium Deficiency During Pregnancy
Lead is stored in our bones and teeth after an exposure because lead binds tightly to calcium. Lead can be released into the blood stream if the body must take calcium from the bones to compensate for a deficiency. A calcium-deficient pregnant women can inadvertantly expose her unborn baby to lead this way, as the lead in her blood can pass into the womb via the placenta.
Candlewicks with Metallic Cores
Candles with metallic wicks or wick-cores (that stand up straight) may contain lead, which can be inhaled when the candle is burned.
Folk or Herbal Remedies or Medicines
Herbal preparations and folk remedies, such as “greta” or “azarcon,” can contain lead.
Imported Vinyl Mini-blinds
Vinyl deteriorates in sunlight, releasing lead used as a “binder” for the pigment in some mini-blinds. The result is a lead-laden dust that children may swallow when mouthing the blinds.
Lead is not used in vinyl blinds made in the U.S.
Inks Used on Printed Plastic Bags
Lead used in the inks used on plastic bags can leach into foods wrapped in them.
Significant Statistics
Nearly 1 million children under the age of six have blood lead levels higher than the lead safety threshold of 10 mcg/dL that has been established by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Screening Young Children for Lead Poisoning: Guidance for State and Local Public Health Officials. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1997.
http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/guide/guide97.htm
64 million homes in the United States contain lead paint.
Numerous studies show that every 10 mcg/dL increase of blood lead level results in a 2-7 point decrease in IQ.
Over 80 percent of all homes built before 1978 in the U.S. have lead-based paint in them. The older the house, the more likely it is to contain lead-based paint and a higher concentration of lead in the paint.
Home Test Swabs: Swiped across the surface of painted surfaces, furniture or dishes, these kits will indicate lead content if the swiped area changes color. This kind of test will not indicate the quantity of lead present and sometimes shows presence of lead when levels are minimal. Available at hardware or home improvement stores, or can be obtained from HybridVet Systems (LeadCheck Swabs), 800-262-LEAD, or Frandon Enterprises (Frandon Lead Alert Kit), 800-359-9000.
Sample Collection Kits: These kits contain materials to collect paint, dust or water samples, which must be sent to an EPA-certified laboratory for analysis. They will tell you exactly how much lead is in the sample you provide, though at a higher cost. Available at home improvement stores and from HomeSafe.
Professional Testing: A qualified professional can determine if your home contains lead paint using a variety of means, including lab tests of paint samples, surface dust test and testing done with a portable X-ray fluorescence (XRF) machine. Contact the National Lead Information Center for a list of EPA-recognized, accredited laboratories.
Blood Tests. Your doctor can determine whether your child has been exposed to dangerous levels of lead through a simple blood test. All infants between the age of 6 months and 1 year should be tested.
How to minimize exposure to lead
Interim Steps: These steps should not be considered a solution but rather things you can do until a permanent solution can be found.
-To eliminate dust that may contain lead, frequently wipe toys, furnishings, window sills and other surfaces that children may touch with a damp cloth. Thoroughly rinse all surfaces, sponges and mops after cleaning.
-Vacuum carpets with a vacuum cleaner equipped with a HEPA filter.
-Wash pacifiers and bottles if they fall on the floor.
-Wash stuffed animals regularly.
-Run water taps for 1 minute before drinking water. Use cold water for cooking as hot water may leach lead in pipes. See also: Safe Pipes: Lead in Your Drinking Water? -Feed children a healthy diet that is rich in calcium and iron. Spinach, broccoli, raisins, and dairy products are good sources.
-Replace vinyl miniblinds of unknown origin.
-Wash children’s hands frequently.
-Plant grass or other plant covers on soil that may contain high lead levels. See also: Soil Contaminants: Striving for Safe Soil. -Paint over intact lead paint (except on window frames and doors). Lead paint that is not crumbling poses no hazard. Painting over window frames and doors may not solve the problem as friction may wear the safer paint away, resulting in lead dust.
Professional Abatement: To remove or control the lead hazard permanently, a professional “abatement” contractor can remove, seal or enclose lead-based paint with special materials and equipment. Lead abatement should only be done by professionals. See Detecting and Removing Lead Paint for more information and resources.
According to the National Sanitation Foundation International, carbon/charcoal, reverse osmosis and distillation filter systems will remove lead from drinking water. This includes most pitcher=type filters. Check the filters package for the contaminants it removes. (See also Safe Drinking Water: Filtration for more information on water filters.)
Consumer Reports rates water filters for lead removal.
Alternatives
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
What You Should Know About Lead in China Dishes. Environmental Defense.
Protect Your Family From Lead in Your Home. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics.
http://www.epa.gov/lead/leadpbed.htm
Eliminating Childhood Lead Poisoning: A Federal Strategy Targeting Lead Paint Hazards. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Presidential Task Force, February 2000.
ww.epa.gov/opptintr/lead/fedstrategy2000.pdf
Lead in Your Home: A Parent's Reference Guide. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics.
http://www.epa.gov/lead/leadpbed.htm
Other government agencies
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development
Office of Healthy Homes and Lead Hazard Control
451 7th Street, S.W., Room B-133
Washington, DC 20410
202-755-1785
Lead-Based Paint Disclosure Rule. In most cases, buyers and tenants of housing built before 1978 must be warned of lead-based paint and its hazards by sellers, landlords and agents. In addition to providing an EPA-approved pamphlet, the seller or landlord must notify the buyer or tenant of any knowledge of lead-based paint hazards and their location in the dwelling and any pertinent records or reports.
Depending on the your locality, your landlord may be required to take certain actions to remove lead hazards from your home if your child has a high blood lead level. Contact your state department of housing for more information.
Children with calcium or iron deficiencies may be more susceptible to lead poisoning. Sufficient calcium and iron intake decreases the absorption of lead.
malathion
Also Known As:
malathion
Description
An organophosphate insecticide used on home and public lawns, gardens, trees and shrubs, as well as on cotton and some food crops. Malathion is also sprayed, aerially, over cities, suburbs and farmland to control mosquitoes and Mediterranean fruit flies. Some head lice treatments may also contain malathion.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, malathion is Moderately Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, malathion is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), malathion is Slightly Toxic
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is considered an Unclassifiable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Neurotoxin = Can harm brain and central nervous system
Suspected Endocrine Disruptor = May interfere with, mimic or block hormones
At very high exposures, can cause respiratory paralysis and death.
Can cause skin rashes or irritation (redness, itchy or burning), hives or eye irritation (redness, tearing, swelling, blurred vision).
There is some evidence that malathion can cause cancer, based upon animal studies. See “Other” section for details.
Inorganic mercury can be corrosive and causes burns to skin, eyes, and respiratory passages.
How Exposures Occur
Absorption through the skin
Children can be exposed by touching recently treated garden vegetables and fruits. Surfaces in homes, on playground equipment, recently treated lawns are other sources. Lawns and outdoor surfaces down-wind of farms that have sprayed malathion may also contain harmful residues. Lawns and outdoor surfaces may become contaminated when malathion is applied aerially. The U.S. EPA considers that there is a concern for toddlers who may be exposed after application to lawns or other turf areas.
Lice shampoos containing malathion can be absorbed through the scalp.
In Food
Children may ingest traces of malathion in foods that have been treated with it. Malathion residues have been found on samples of bell peppers, celery, cherries, grapes, nectarines, peaches, pears, raspberries, spinach, and strawberries, among other foods.
Inhalation
Children may breathe in malathion while it is being applied to nearby lawns, gardens or farms, or aerially for med-fly or mosquitoes.
Ingestion
Children may accidently eat malathion by putting grass or soil into their mouths, or by touching contaminated surfaces and putting fingers in their mouths.
Significant Statistics
Nearly 17 million pounds of malathion are applied annually in the U.S., primarily to control boll weevils on cotton.
After malathion was sprayed aerially in several counties in Florida in 1998 to control the Mediterranean fruit fly, 123 people reported illness that was considered probably or possibly related to the spraying.
“Surveillance for Acute Pesticide-Related Illness During the Medfly Eradication Program Florida, 1998,” Journal of the American Medical Association Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, Vol. 282, No. 23 (December 15, 1999).http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/282/23/2204
Solutions
How to detect malathion
There are over 250 products containing malathion on the market. Read labels to determine if the pesticide products and lice shampoos in your home are among them.
You can also find out if malathion is an ingredient in a pesticide product or lice shampoo on Pesticide Action Network Pesticides Database.
If your district resorts to aerial or ground spraying near your home for mosquito or other pest control, contact your local health department to find out which chemicals are being used.
Food: There is no way for parents to determine exactly how much malathion may be in their children’s food. You can get a rough idea of the fruits and vegetables that may contain malathion from:
Avoid the use of pesticides whenever possible, especially near children. If you do have pesticides in your home, keep them tightly closed and out of the reach of children.
Contact your local sanitation department or hazardous waste disposal program to find out how to dispose of pesticides properly.
Earth 911 lists hazardous waste disposal sites by zip code.
Prevent your home and lawn from becoming a breeding ground for mosquitoes. Unclog roof gutters, and remove all sources of standing water, such as old tires, bird baths, wading pools, and flowerpots.
Choose least-toxic pest control methods for your home garden, lawn and shrubs. Adopt Integrated Pest Management practices.
If your area will be sprayed with malathion (or other chemicals), demand to be notified at least 24 hours in advance to keep children, pets and people with asthma or allergies inside. Close all windows and doors, and switch off air conditioning during spraying. Keep laundry or toys inside. Cover lawn furniture and swingsets, or rinse them afterwards.
Otherwise, wash fruits and vegetables well and peel them.
The most effective means of treating lice is the removal of nits (egg sacks) by hand. There are anedoctal reports of success of food-grade oils used to smother lice and ease the removal of nits. Special lice combs also aid in lice and nit removal.
Avoid using lice shampoos containing pesticides, such as malathion, permethrin and lindane! Shampoos made with enzymes from natural vegetable extracts are a safe and effective alternative to toxic pesticides. The enzymes loosen the “glue” that holds nits in the hair so that they can be combed out.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Chemical Watch Factsheet: Malathion. Beyond Pesticides/National Coalition Against the Misuse of Pesticides.
Head Lice Information. Harvard School of Public Health, Updated August 9, 2000.
http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/headlice.html
Rumsey, Kay. "Dealing with Head Lice," Journal of Pesticide Reform, Vol. 18, No. 2 (Summer 1998).
http://www.pesticide.org/HeadliceUpdate.pdf
Olkowski, William, Sheila Daar, and Helga Olkowski. Common-Sense Pest Control: Least Toxic Solutions for Your Home, Garden, Pets, and Community. Newton, Conn,: Taunton Press, 1991.
OVERKILL: Why Pesticide Spraying for West Nile Virus May Cause More Harm Than Good.
Toxics Action Center and Maine Environmental Policy Institute, July 2001
http://www.meepi.org/wnv/mass.htm
Head-lice shampoos can be dangerous, Consumer Reports (September 2003).
The cancer-causing potential of malathion has been debated among U.S. EPA staff and other scientists. In EPA’s original February 2000 risk assessment of malathion, the agency classified malathion as a “likely human carcinogen.” This status was changed in April 2000, when EPA downgraded malathion to “suggestive evidence of carcinogenicity but not sufficient to assess human carcinogenic potential.” This lesser regulatory status results in fewer restrictions on the pesticide’s use.
Several dissenting EPA scientists and scientific advisors believe that the downgrade of this classification by EPA was in response to industry pressure. In order to achieve a lower status, it is alleged that test data was manipulated to reflect a lower incidence of cancer in animals exposed to malathion. The changed decision did not reflect any new data.
Letter from EPA Senior Toxicologist Dr. Brian Dementi Concerning Cancer and Non-Cancer Toxicology Issues. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, November 8, 2000.
Mercury is a toxic heavy metal that is found naturally in the environment. As the result of human activities, environmental levels have increased substantially over natural levels. Mercury is found in three forms: organic, inorganic and elemental (mercury).
Mercury is a potent neurotoxin that can cause permanent damage to the brain and central nervous system, especially among young children. In pregnant women, mercury can pass through the placenta and can harm the fetus.
The most common organic form of mercury (when it is combined with carbon) is methylmercury, which accumulates in the flesh of fish, animals and humans. It is produced when microorganisms, such as bacteria, in water and soil convert elemental mercury into methylmercury. Methylmercury is a common contaminant of fish and seafood. It rises up the food chain and reaches its highest levels in predatory species, such as shark and tuna, and bottom-feeders, such as crab.
The elemental or “pure” form (when it is not combined with other elements) is a shiny, silver-white, liquid metal that beads. This characteristic makes it attractive to children who may be tempted to play with it. At room temperature, it also evaporates into mercury vapors. Elemental mercury is used in thermometers, electrical switches, fluorescent lights, thermostats, barometers, batteries, dental fillings, and other products. It is also still used in some Latin American and Asian herbal or religious remedies, and in some rituals or spiritual practices in some Latin American and Caribbean religions such as Voodoo, Santeria and Espiritismo. Approximately 80 percent of the mercury released into the environment as a result of human activities is elemental mercury, primarily from fossil fuel combustion in power plants, mining, smelting, and solid waste incineration. High doses of elemental mercury in a short time period are the most dangerous.
Inorganic mercury is mercury combined with elements such as chlorine, oxygen or sulfur. Mercuric chloride, or the more toxic mercurous chloride are examples. Most inorganic mercury is in the form of powders or crystals. Inorganic mercury compounds are or have been used in the past in a variety of products including pigments (such as tattoo dyes), vaccines, medicines (as a preservative, for example), skin bleaching creams, disinfectants or antiseptics, paints and pesticides. Phenylmercuric compounds were banned from interior and exterior paints in 1991 due to risks from the mercury vapors. Inorganic mercury causes damage to kidneys.
Natural forms of mercury in the environment come from volcanoes, hot springs, and from the breakdown of minerals in rocks.
Toxicity information varies by form.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, mercury is Not Available
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, mercury is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), mercury is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
Allergen
Neurotoxin = Can harm brain and central nervous system
Suspected Endocrine Disruptor = May interfere with, mimic or block hormones
Development Toxicant = Can interfere with normal development of a fetus or child
Reproductive Toxicant = Can harm reproductive system
Other
Harm to developing fetus. Children of women exposed to high levels of methylmercury during or before pregnancy have exhibited delayed onset of walking and talking, brain damage, mental retardation, blindness, seizures, inability to speak, cerebral palsy, altered muscle tone, deep tendon reflexes.
Children exposed to far lower methylmercury exposures in the womb have exhibited delays and deficits in learning ability that may not be apparent except by the use of very sensitive neuropsychological tests.
Animals exposed orally to long-term, high levels of methylmercury or phenylmercury in laboratory studies experienced adverse effects on the developing fetus, sperm, and male reproductive organs; and increases in the number of spontaneous abortions and stillbirths.
In critical periods of development before they are born, and in the early months after birth, children and fetuses are particularly sensitive to the harmful effects of metallic mercury and methylmercury on the nervous system.
There is little information on the effects in humans from long-term, low-level exposure to inorganic mercury. Children treated with mercurous chloride for constipation, worms, or teething discomfort also have had swollen red gums, excessive salivation, weight loss, diarrhea and/or abdominal pain, and muscle twitching or cramping in the legs and/or arms. Kidney damage is very common after exposure to toxic levels of inorganic mercury. Metallic mercury or methylmercury that enters the body can also be converted to inorganic mercury and result in kidney damage.
At high doses, both organic and elemental mercury can cause permanent brain and central nervous system damage, particularly to the developing brains of fetuses, infants, and small children; permanent kidney damage; or death.
Different forms of mercury affect the nervous system differently. The nervous system is more sensitive to methylmercury toxicity than are other organs in the body. Evidence suggests that the effects worsen with age, even after the exposure stops.
Organic and elemental mercury exposure can also cause tremors, muscle incoordination (i.e., inability to walk), personality changes (such as irritability, excessive shyness, confidence loss, nervousness), loss of sensation, changes in vision or hearing, memory loss and deficits in cognitive function. Mercury exposure may also be associated with behavioral problems, and with peripheral neuropathy, the failure of the nerves that carry information between the brain and spinal cord, leading to pain, loss of sensation, and inability to control muscles. Children prenatally exposed to mercury may also be maintain less normal heart rate variability, a risk factor for developing heart disease.
If ingested at high levels, inorganic mercury can cause kidney damage, vomiting, nausea, severe ulcers, abdominal pain and diarrhea. Effects on the heart have also been observed in children after they accidentally swallowed mercuric chloride. Symptoms included rapid heart rate and increased blood pressure.
If inhaled at high levels over a short time, elemental mercury can damage the lining of the mouth and irritate the lungs and airways, causing tightness of the chest, a burning sensation in the lungs, and coughing. Other effects from exposure to mercury vapor include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, increases in blood pressure or heart rate, skin rashes, and eye irritation.
Elemental mercury vapors may also cause acrodynia or “pink disease,” which causes leg cramps, irritability, and abnormal redness of the skin, leading to peeling palms of hands and soles of feet. Excessive perspiration, itching, rash, joint pain and weakness, fretfulness, sleeplessness, elevated blood pressure and rapid heart rate may also be present.
Elemental mercury is not as toxic when ingested compared to when it is inhaled—except in very large amounts.
Skin contact with elemental mercury has been shown to cause an allergic reaction (skin rashes) in some people, but otherwise is not as toxic as inhalation.
Possible cancer risk. The World Health Organization has classified methylmercury as a possible human carcinogen but has found metallic and inorganic mercury to be unclassifiable as to carcinogenicity. Methylmercury exposure may have been linked to liver and esophagus cancers in overexposed populations in Minamata, Japan. Mercuric chloride and methylmercury have caused tumors in test animals.
How Exposures Occur
Fish and Seafood
Fish and seafood are the main source of methylmercury in the diet, containing approximately 1,000 to 10,000 times more methylmercury than other foods. Saltwater fish (especially sharks and swordfish) that live a long time and can grow to a very large size, and marine mammals such as whales, seals, dolphins and walruses tend to have the highest levels of mercury in their bodies. Children may be exposed to methylmercury when they eat contaminated fish and seafood, or when these foods are eaten by their mother during pregnancy.
Both inorganic and methylmercury will pass into breast milk and into the fetus from a pregnant women if they enter a nursing or pregnant woman’s body. However, the benefits of breast feeding are generally greater than the possible adverse effects of mercury in breast milk.
Young children and women who are pregnant (or may be in the future) or nursing should avoid consuming fish under mercury advisory.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency also recommends that women who are pregnant or may become pregnant, nursing mothers and young children, limit consumption of fish from non-commercial sources — freshwater fish both caught and directly eaten by subsistence and recreational fishers — to one meal per week (six ounces of cooked fish per adult; two ounces of cooked fish per child). In addition, they should not eat commercially-available shark, swordfish, king mackerel, or tilefish, which are highest in mercury, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration has warned.
Environmental Working Group recommends going a step further and avoiding these other high-mercury seafoods as well: tuna steaks, sea bass, oysters (from the Gulf of Mexico), marlin, halibut, and white croaker. They recommend restricting consumption of canned tuna to only once a month as a precaution.
Metal amalgam, or “silver” dental fillings are generally about 50 percent mercury. Exposure may occur during the dental procedure or as the result of corrosion or chewing or grinding motions that may slowly release very small amounts of mercury either as a vapor or dissolved in saliva.
The mercury from dental amalgam may contribute as much as 75% of your total daily mercury exposure, depending on the number of amalgam fillings you have, the amount of fish consumed and the levels in the fish, etc. Whether the level of exposure could cause harm is an ongoing subject of debate and research by scientists and health officials.
According to the U.S. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), U.S. government summaries on the effects of dental amalgam conclude that there is no apparent health hazard to the general population. However, they also recommend further study to determine the possibility of more subtle behavioral or immune system effects as well as the levels of exposure that may result in adverse effects in sensitive populations, including pregnant women, children under the age of 6 (especially up to the age of 3), people with impaired kidney function, and people with hypersensitive immune responses to metals.
If you or your children among this group, you should discuss this with your dentist prior to any dental restoration work. Removal of dental amalgams in people who have no indication of adverse effects is not recommended and can put the person at greater risk, if performed improperly. Chelation therapy (used to remove metals from the body tissues) itself presents some health risks, and should be considered only when a licensed occupational or environmental health physician determines it necessary to reduce immediate and significant health risks due to high levels of mercury in the body.
The American Dental Association, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and others have reviewed the research and have concluded that dental amalgam is a safe way to repair teeth.
Caribbean Religious Rituals
Children can inhale mercury vapors when metallic mercury, or “azogue,” is used in rituals and spiritual practices of LatinAmerican a nd Caribbean religions such as Santeria, Voodoo, Espiritismo and Palo Mayombe. Azogue can be purchased in “botanica” stores in capsules or in glass containers. It is sometimes placed in a sealed pouch to be worn on a necklace or in a pocket, or it may be sprinkled in the home or car. Some people may mix azogue in bath water or perfume, or place azogue in devotional candles.
In all cases, this use will release mercury vapors into the surrounding air and can continue to result in exposures for months or years after the ceremony is finished.
Thermometers and Other Consumer Products
Children may be exposed to mercury from some consumer products, such as glass thermometers, electrical switches, fluorescent and high intensity light bulbs, blood pressure manometers, thermostats, computers and electronic equipment. In most cases, the mercury is contained and should not pose a risk unless damaged or broken, in which case mercury vapors or metallic mercury beads may be released.
Metallic mercury and its vapors are extremely difficult to remove from clothes, furniture, carpet, floors, walls, and other such items. If these items are not properly cleaned, the mercury can remain for months or years and continue to be a source of exposure.
Children can also be exposed to mercury by swallowing or applying to their skin outdated medicinal products (laxatives, worming medications, and teething powders) that contain mercurous chloride. Exposure may also occur from the improper or excessive use of other chemicals containing mercury, such as skin-lightening creams and some topical antiseptic or disinfectant agents (mercurochrome and thimerosal).
Musical greeting cards, talking refrigerator magnets, lighted athletic shoes (sneakers), and electronic toys could also contain mercury. These are not likely to pose a risk during use although they contribute to contamination of the environment when disposed.
Outdoor Exposures
Children can inhale small amounts of mercury from polluted air from coal-fired power plants, spills, municipal and medical waste incinerators, metal mines, cement factories or hazardous waste sites. Most outdoor air is not likely to contain levels that would be harmful.
Exposure to mercury compounds at hazardous waste sites is much more likely to occur from handling contaminated soil (i.e., children playing in or eating contaminated surface soil), drinking well-water, or eating fish from contaminated waters near those sites. Some forms of organic mercury can be absorbed through the skin.
Vaccines and Other Medicines
A few vaccines and other medicines contain small amounts of mercury compounds, such as thimerosal (which contains ethyl mercury), phenylmercuric acetate, and phenylmercuric nitrate.
When vaccines containing thimerosal have been administered in the recommended doses, only minor effects such as swelling or redness at the injection site have been noted, but no other harmful effects have been reported. However, to be on the safe side, in July 1999, the Public Health Service agencies (PHS), the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), and vaccine manufacturers agreed that thimerosal levels in vaccines should be reduced or eliminated. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) committed to expediting the review of new vaccines that do not contain thimerosal.
Currently, all routinely recommended pediatric vaccines that are manufactured for the U.S. market contain no thimerosal or contain only trace amounts of it. These include: MMR (measles, mumps, rubella), varicella (chickenpox), inactivated polio (IPV), and pneumococcal conjugate vaccines.
Some traditional Chinese and Hispanic and homeopathic remedies for stomach disorders (for example, herbal balls) contain mercury and may harm children if ingested directly, or if used by pregnant or nursing mothers, who can pass on mercury to their unborn child or nursing infant.
Some skin-lightening creams may contain ammoniated mercuric chloride and mercuric iodide.
Significant Statistics
In the United States, over 60,000 children each year may be born at risk for neurodevelopmental effects because of exposure to methylmercury in utero, the National Academy of Sciences estimates.
Dentists are the third largest users of mercury in the U.S., using approximately 40 metric tons of mercury each year in silver amalgam fillings, which are 50% mercury. Dentist offices are the largest source of mercury pollution to the nation’s wastewater treatment plants.
As of December 2000, 41 states had issued *2,242* advisories limiting fish consumption from local lakes, rivers or coastal areas due to mercury contamination. Almost 79 percent of all advisories issued in the U.S. are a result of mercury contamination in fish and shellfish. Advisories for mercury have increased steadily, from 899 advisories in 1993 to 2,242 advisories in 2000. The number of states that have issued mercury advisories also has risen steadily from 27 states in 1993 to 41 states in 2000.
Approximately 10 percent (6 million) of U.S. women have mercury levels within one-tenth of potentially hazardous levels, indicating a narrow margin of safety.
U.S. Food and Drug Administration, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, et al. “Blood and Hair Mercury Levels in Young Children and Women of Childbearing Age—United States, 1999.” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly, Vol. 50, No.8 (March 2, 2001), pp. 140-3.http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5008a2.htm
Approximately 60 percent of the mercury deposition that occurs in the United States comes from domestic, human-made sources of pollution.
The largest fish, especially predator fish at the top of the food chain, will have the highest methylmercury levels. These include shark, swordfish, tuna, mackerel, sea bass, marlin, halibut and tilefish. See our Fish Toxins chart (PDF) for more on mercury and fish. For more information on which fish contain the highest mercury levels, see the Safe Fish CHEC List for Children, Teens and All Women of Child-bearing Age.
Check local fish advisories before consuming fish from local fresh or ocean waters. Your state health department can tell you if any fish consumption advisories exist in your area, or you can check our State Fish Consumption Advisory Links.
Check labels on medicines such as antiseptics, eye drops, eye ointments, nasal sprays, skin-lightening creams, and herbal preparations. Avoid or minimize unnecessary use of these products containing any form of mercury, including mercurochrome, thimerosal (also called merthiolate), mercuric chloride, ammoniated mercuric chloride, mercuric acetate, mercuric nitrate, and mercuric iodide.
How to minimize exposure to mercury
If a thermometer breaks and spills mercury in your home:
1) Avoid touching it or breathing its fumes. Ask others, particularly children, to leave the area.
2) Open windows and doors to ventilate the area during cleanup.
3) Clean up the mercury beads by using one sheet of paper to carefully roll them onto a second sheet of paper, or by sucking very small beads of mercury into an eye dropper. Place mercury, paper, and eye dropper into a plastic bag or airtight container. Do not use a vacuum cleaner to clean up mercury, as this will spread mercury vapors into the air (from the vacuum’s exhaust). Do not try to wipe or blot it up with a cloth or paper towel, as this will only spread the mercury and break it up into smaller beads, making it more difficult to remove. If mercury spills on carpet, try to remove beads with the same method, but call a poison control center for further advice on cleanup.
4) Remove it from your house, then contact the local poison control center, fire department, or public health board for advice on proper disposal.
Metallic mercury and its vapors are extremely difficult to remove from clothes, furniture, carpet, floors, walls, and other such items. If these items are not properly cleaned, the mercury can remain for months or years, and continue to be a source of exposure.
If you accidently touch metallic mercury or it gets on your clothing, wash yourself thoroughly and discard contaminated clothing by placing them in a sealed plastic bag.
Be sure to properly dispose of mercury-containing household items such as thermometers and fluorescent light bulbs. Call your local sanitation department to find out how to dispose of these and other household hazardous waste, or find this information at Earth 911.
Removal of dental amalgams in people who have no indication of adverse effects is not recommended and can put the person at greater risk, if performed improperly.
Alternatives
Fish that are lower on the food chain generally contain the least mercury contamination. Fish and seafood that have consistently tested lowest for mercury are anchovy, catfish, clams; cod, flounder, sole and pollock from the Pacific only; herring, farmed oysters, ocean perch, sardines, scallops, shrimp, tilapia, trout. For more detailed information, see Fish and Seafood: Charting a Course for the Safest Choices.
Note: Because mercury concentrates in the muscle tissue of fish, skinning, trimming, or cooking the fish will not significantly reduce mercury levels in contaminated fish.
Switch to digital thermometers, which give accurate readings and contain no mercury. Mercury-free cooking thermometers that are not digital (such as those that are alcohol-based) are also available, but you may have to call a manufacturer to find out which models are made without mercury.
White plastic/glass composite resins are a mercury-free alternative to amalgam dental fillings. However, these are often slightly more expensive than metal amalgam fillings and may contain the hormone disrupting chemical, bisphenol-A. Discuss the best option with your dentist.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Brain Food: What Women Should Know About Mercury Contamination of Fish. Environmental Working Group, 2001.
http://www.ewg.org/reports/BrainFood/pr.html
What You Need to Know About Mercury: What to Do if Mercury Spills. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, SuperFund Kids Page, Updated October 1, 1998.
MTBE is a volatile organic compound (VOC), with a strong odor, which is added to gasoline to increase its oxygen content to reduce carbon monoxide emissions from car exhaust. MTBE has been used since 1979. But, after the passage of the 1990 Clean Air Act, the federal government required that, in 39 regions of the U.S. that did not meet federal air pollution standards, gasoline containing oxygenates (such as MTBE or ethanol) be sold during winter months, when carbon monoxide emissions are highest.
Soon after, some motorists reported health effects from MTBE, such as headache and nausea, while driving or refueling. MTBE has also become a widespread contaminant of drinking water due to leaks from underground storage tanks. Some states have already banned MTBE, and a bill is currently before the U.S. Congress that would phase out MTBE as a gasoline additive within the next four years.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, methyl tert butyl ether is Very Highly Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, methyl tert butyl ether is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), methyl tert butyl ether is Slightly Toxic
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is considered an Unclassifiable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Neurotoxin = Can harm brain and central nervous system
Asthma Trigger
Other
Fumes can irritate the eyes, nose and throat.
Nervous system depression, causing headaches, nausea, dizziness, weakness, confusion, and difficulty concentrating.
Kidney and liver damage.
Test animals exposed to high doses of MTBE have developed leukemia, lymphoma, and liver, kidney, and testicular cancer.
In offspring of test animals exposed during pregnancy, MTBE has increased the incidence of cleft palate and of low body weight and survival rate.
How Exposures Occur
Automobile Exhaust
Children can inhale MTBE fumes in car, truck, and
airplane exhaust when travelling as a passenger inside vehicles or when breathing outdoor air near busy roadways in regions of the U.S. where MTBE is
added to fuel.
Drinking Water
Children can be exposed to MTBE when they drink or swim or shower in contaminated water. MTBE can contaminate groundwater from leaking underground gasoline storage tanks and pipelines, spills, and
emissions from marine engines into lakes. Once released into the environment, it remains in groundwater for a long time.
Gasoline Fumes
Children can inhale MTBE fumes from gasoline at filling stations, if gas is stored in home garages, or if they live near filling stations or other facilities that can leak gasoline from underground storage containers.
Significant Statistics
About 30 percent of this country’s gasoline is reformulated gasoline, of which about 87 percent contains MTBE.
Of the 30 percent of the US population that lives in areas where MTBE is in regular use, 5% are possibly exposed to elevated MTBE levels in tap water.
In 1998, 4.56 million pounds of MTBE were released into the environment by industrial facilities in the U.S. This represented an increase from 1997 emissions (2.92 million pounds); from 1996 emissions (3.66 million pounds); from 1995 emissions (3.44 million pounds), and from 1988 (baseline) emissions, which totaled 2.62 million pounds.
To find out whether the gasoline in your region may contain MTBE, see the listing of oxygenated fuels used in each locality at the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s MTBE
website.
In 2001, the U.S. EPA began requiring that public water systems serving most of the population monitor for MTBE. To find out whether MTBE has been detected in your public water supply, contact your local water supplier. You can also have your water tested by sending samples to a certified laboratory. The EPA has compiled a list of state-certified drinking water laboratories.
If you draw your water from a private well, the local health department may be able to tell you if MTBE is a water contaminant in your area. If it has not been tested, and if your well is near a filling station, you may want to have your water tested for MTBE contamination. For more information on testing, go to EPA’s Safe Drinking Water web site, or call the Safe Drinking Water Hotline, 800-426-4791.
How to minimize exposure to methyl tert butyl ether
Some water filters remove MTBE. You can search for water filtration devices that have been certified to remove MTBE by doing a search on National Sanitation Foundation Certified Product Listings.
Alternatives
Service stations with plastic vapor-recovery boot nozzles on their gas pumps release less fumes, including MTBE, into the air during filling. Look for this accordion-like cover over the pump nozzle.
Urge your local gas stations to oxygenate their fuel with safer ethanol instead of MTBE.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
MTBE in Drinking Water. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water, Ground Water and Drinking Water.
http://www.epa.gov/safewater/mtbe.html
Other government agencies
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water
Ariel Rios Building
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Washington DC 20460-0003
EPA Safe Drinking Water Hotline: 800-426-4791
Molds are fungi that occur through nature and can grow on almost any surface. Mold particles are normally present in the air at all times, both indoors and outdoors, usually without any consequences for our health. Problems may arise only when the level of mold in the air becomes particularly high or if a person is sensitive to mold.
Some molds can cause allergic and respiratory symptoms, such as runny nose, sinus headaches, fatigue, sore throat, chronic cough, wheezing, breathlessness, and tightness in the chest. Like the seeds of a plant, mold spores can remain inactive in dry materials, such as soil, dust and clothing, for years. They can suddenly begin to grow when moisture increases. Mold particles can cause health effects without actively growing. But it is when molds grow unchecked that levels inside homes become high enough to be dangerous. Actively growing molds also release particles (spores and fungal fragments) and toxins (called mycotoxins) into the air, which cause health effects.
The most common indoor molds, aspergillus, penicillium and cladosporium, require moisture to grow, though some molds can grow in dry climates, such as alternaria, which is common in Arizona.
In most cases, mold is particularly a problem where humidity is high, plumbing drips, the roof leaks, or flooding has occurred. Therefore, basements, bathrooms and kitchens are the most likely locations for mold growth indoors. Mold can grow in building materials (such as drywall, paint, wallpaper), upholstered furniture, mattresses, carpets and carpet pads, and potted plants. Outdoors, mold is likely to grow in piles of leaves, weeds, grass, etc.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, molds is Not Available
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, molds is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), molds is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical may cause cancer. It is considered a Possible Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Allergen
Asthma Trigger
Other
Allergy symptoms, such as cough, sore throat, nasal stuffiness, eye irritation or itching, headaches, especially in sinuses.
Shortness of breathing, wheezing, asthma.
Upper respiratory infections. Severe reactions may include fever and shortness of breath. People with chronic illnesses, such as obstructive lung disease, may develop mold infections in their lungs. Individuals with compromised immune systems may also be vulnerable to respiratory infections due to mold exposure.
Some molds can cause coughing up blood, nose bleeds, anemia.
Some molds can cause skin irritation or rashes.
Infants exposed to high fungal levels in the home may have an increased risk of lower respiratory illnesses such as croup, pneumonia, bronchitis and bronchiolitis.
How Exposures Occur
Inhalation of Mold/Mold Particles Growing on Hard Surfaces
Mold particles from mold growing in walls, floors, and other indoor surfaces can become airborne.
Inhalation of Particles Present in Dust
Molds can grow in the fibers of carpets, upholstery, and mattresses, or mold particles may settle into these fibers. When carpets and upholstery are disturbed, spores and particles may be released.
Inhalation of Mold Growing Inside Humidifiers and Air Conditioners
Humidifiers, especially the cool-spray and evaporative types, are breeding grounds for mold. The mold will be released into the air along with the moisture.
Air conditioners may also breed and disperse mold due to condensation of moisture inside the unit. Proper maintenance and cleaning is essential to prevent this.
Ingestion
Mold can be touched and then ingested through hand-to-mouth contact. Some molds, such as those that are necessary to make cheese, are not harmful.
Forced Air Heating Systems
Homes heated with forced air furnaces can spread mold that collects inside ducts. The air movement may also disturb mold spores that have settled inside the home.
Significant Statistics
A relative humidity of 30-50% is optimal in homes to prevent mold growth.
Look for visible mold growth. Molds vary in color, which can be white, gray, brown, black, yellow, or green, and texture, which can be cottony, velvety, granular, or leathery. Some molds may simply look like a stain.
Mold may be present anywhere where water damage has occurred. Look for signs of excess moisture or water damage such as leaks, standing water, water stains, or condensation problems, particularly on the ceilings (from roof leaks), in plumbing and under sinks, and around windows.
Mold can usually be smelled. It has an earthy or musty odor. But people vary in their ability to smell mold, so don’t use this as your only method of detection.
How to minimize exposure to molds
Find the Source of Moisture and Repair it. Repair leaky roofs and plumbing. Moisture-proofing walls and floors may be necessary in basements. If moisture is a problem in your bathrooms, kitchen or basement, install and use exhaust fans to pull out moist air. Air conditioners and dehumidifiers may also be necessary to keep moisture levels down.
Clean or Discard Affected Materials. Wearing gloves and a face mask, scrub mold off of non-porous materials with a stiff brush, a non-ammonia detergent and hot water. A dilute solution of 10% household chlorine bleach (1 part bleach to 10 parts water) can be used to kill mold and mold spores, but is not necessary. (Be sure to ventilate well when using bleach.) Dry completely.
Absorbent materials that become moldy should be replaced. Such materials may include sheet rock, insulation, plaster, carpet/carpet pad, upholstered furniture and mattresses, ceiling tiles, wood products (other than solid wood), and paper products. Simply drying and cleaning surfaces does nothing to eliminate mold spores that have penetrated inside the item.
Do not vacuum moldy carpets or upholstery! Vacuuming disperses mold spores and will not remove all the mold spores anyway.
**The amount of mold particles in air can increase greatly when mold is disturbed. Use rubber gloves, goggles, and dust masks when removing mold, and take measures to prevent spores from spreading throughout the rest of the home. Keep children away!
Preventative Measures:
Maintain indoor humidity between 30-50%. You can measure humidity by using a hygrometer, which can be purchased at hardware stores.
Use exhaust fans or open windows in kitchens and bathrooms when showering, cooking, or using the dishwasher.
Vent clothes dryers to the outside.
Use air conditioners and dehumidifiers to reduce moisture in the air, especially in summer, but empty drip pans and clean them daily to make sure that these appliances don’t become moldy and contribute to the problem.
Inspect air conditioners for mold before each cooling season and have coils cleaned as needed.
Keep the doors between rooms and closets open.
Do not store dirty or damp laundry in closed closets.
Do not store firewood indoors.
Eliminate piles of leaves and decaying debris in your yard, especially near your house.
Alternatives
Choose non-carpet floors, such as ceramic, tile, or wood (with a sealant), especially in bathrooms, basements and kitchens. Use area rugs which can be taken up and washed often. For more information, see Carpets and Rugs and Floor Covering.
Choose furniture with washable cushions.
Put a plastic cover over dirt in crawlspaces to prevent moisture from coming in from the ground. Be sure crawlspaces are well-ventilated.
Use air cleaners and filters after adopting the preventive measure listed above. Devices equipped with electronic or HEPA filters are best at removing mold, mildew, and dust from the air. But these devices will only remove the particles that are airborne, not those that have settled.
Use of air conditioners has been shown to significantly reduce airborne concentrations of mold, probably because air conditioners reduce moisture levels and filter out particles.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Biological Pollutants in Your Home. CPSC Document #425. Consumer Product Safety Commission and the American Lung Association.
http://www.cpsc.gov/cpscpub/pubs/425.html
Mold in My Home: What Do I Do? California Department of Health Services, Indoor Air Quality, July 2001.
http://www.cal-iaq.org/mold0107.htm
"Molds at School," Healthy Schools Network, Inc., November 2002.
http://www.healthyschools.org
Damp Indoor Spaces and Health, Institute of Medicine of the National Academies, May 25, 2004.
DEET is the most widely used insect repellent in the United States. DEET can only repel insects; it does not kill them. DEET is applied to skin and clothing to ward off biting and sucking insects, such as mosquitoes, flies, fleas, ticks, and chiggers, and is sold as aerosol and non-aerosol sprays, creams, lotions, sticks, foams and towelettes. Combination sun screen/insect repellent products typically contain DEET. Some formulations of DEET may also contain permethrin.
Insect repellents typically contain up to 30% DEET, and formulations of 100% DEET are also available.
Canada has begun a phaseout of insect repellents containing more than 30% DEET. Combination sunscreen/insect repellent products will no longer be permitted due to the possibility of overexposure to DEET due to multiple applications.
Insect repellents containing DEET should be used sparingly on children and only at the lowest effective concentration. They should not be used at all on children younger than two months old.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, N,N-diethyl-meta-toluamide is Very Highly Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, N,N-diethyl-meta-toluamide is Very Highly Toxic
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), N,N-diethyl-meta-toluamide is Very Highly Toxic
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is considered an Unclassifiable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Other
Slight skin irritation. Eye irritation. In sensitive individuals, may cause allergic dermatitis.
Applying DEET to skin has occasionally produced blisters, sometimes followed by severe scarring.
There have been 18 reported cases where DEET exposure caused seizures and encephalopathy in children since 1960. Three died as a result.
If ingested, may affect the central nervous system.
In some, but not all, studies, test animals fed high doses of DEET experienced kidney and liver damage, and decreased body weight and food consumption.
In a recent study of prolonged exposure to rats, damage to brain cells was noted.
How Exposures Occur
Absorption Through the Skin
Children are exposed to DEET through application of mosquito or tick repellents containing this pesticide. DEET can be absorbed through the skin and/or inhaled during use. Children could also inhale or touch DEET if it is sprayed around the home, on pets, and in pet quarters.
Overexposure to DEET is more likely if the repellent or sunscreen containing DEET is frequently applied.
Ingestion
Children may take in excessive levels of DEET through hand to mouth activity, which is common among young children.
Ingestion of liquid formulations of DEET are also possible if kept within children’s reach.
Across the Placenta
DEET can cross the placenta and expose babies in the womb. While there is no evidence of health effects resulting from exposure during the second and third trimesters, pregnant women should avoid the use of DEET during their first trimester.
Significant Statistics
As of 1998, 225 products containing DEET were registered for use in the United States.
About 30% of the U.S. population uses DEET every year, including 34% of children.
Reregistration Eligibility Decision: DEET. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Prevention, Pesticides, and Toxic Substances, September 1998.http://www.epa.gov/oppsrrd1/REDs/0002red.pdf
Between 5 and 7 million pounds of DEET are used each year in the U.S.
Read labels. Look for the word DEET or the chemical names N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide or diethyltoluamide on packaging and ingredient lists. You can find out if DEET is an ingredient in a particular product on Pesticide Action Network Pesticide Database.
How to minimize exposure to N,N-diethyl-meta-toluamide
If you do use insect repellents that contain DEET, choose one that contains the least amount of DEET (less than 10%). Do not use DEET on children and infants younger than two months old!
Avoid combination sunscreen/insect repellent creams that contain DEET. Since sunscreens must be applied frequently and generously, use of combination formulas may result in unnecessary overexposure to DEET.
Apply DEET only to clothing. Do not apply to skin to minimize exposure. Use as little of the product as possible to achieve coverage—saturation will not necessarily improve the repellent’s efficacy.
If the product must be applied to skin, always test for possible skin irritation on a small area first.
Never apply DEET to children’s faces or hands, which they may put in their mouth or near eyes. Never spray on cuts or irritated skin. If a reaction after use of insect repellents occurs, wash treated skin, and seek medical attention. Take the repellent with you to the hospital or doctor’s office.
After coming indoors, wash treated clothing and skin well with soap and water as soon as possible.
Alternatives
Avoid getting bitten:
- Cover skin with clothing! Wear long-sleeved shirts, long pants, socks, closed shoes or boots instead of sandals and even hats with pull-down mosquito netting, if needed. Tuck pants into socks.
- During daylight hours, wear light-colored clothing, which heats the skin less, minimizing insect-attracting perspiration, and makes ticks easier to see.
- Avoid using scented soaps or other fragranced products that may attract bugs.
- Avoid outdoor activity at dusk when mosquitoes are most active.
If you have pets that live both indoors and out, check their fur frequently for crawling or embedded ticks that may be carried into the home. Ticks can be removed from lawn areas by devising a tick drag: Attach a large piece of white flannel to a stick or pole. Drag cloth across the grass (which simulates the passing of a host), then pick off and dispose of ticks. Freezing, burning, or drowning/flushing are effective for killing them.
In your home, keep screens closed on summer nights. Keep mosquito populations around your home down by eliminating mosquito breeding grounds, standing water. Clean clogged roof gutters. Remove old tires, flowerpots and other rainwater catchers. Refill or clean bird baths every few days.
Naphthalene is a white solid in the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon class of chemicals. It has a strong odor.
The primary household products made from naphthalene are moth balls (or moth flakes) and deodorant blocks for toilets and diaper pails. Some toilet bowl cleaners may also contain naphthalene. Children may be exposed to the fumes or could accidentally ingest the moth balls.
Naphthalene occurs naturally in fossil fuels such as petroleum and coal. It is produced when wood and tobacco are burned, and manufactured from coal tar distillation and petroleum refining. Naphthalene is used to make dyes, some plastics, leather tanning agents, and the insecticide carbaryl. This industrial use is a potential source of naphthalene emissions into air, water or soil. However, naphthalene breaks down fairly quickly.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, naphthalene is Highly Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, naphthalene is Very Highly Toxic
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), naphthalene is Highly Toxic
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is considered an Unclassifiable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Neurotoxin = Can harm brain and central nervous system
Other
Naphthalene is a blood toxicant. Exposure to high concentrations of naphthalene can damage or destroy red blood cells, causing a condition called hemolytic anemia. This can cause fatigue, lack of appetite, headache, nausea, bloody or darkened urine, restlessness, a yellow or pale appearance, and in severe cases, kidney failure.
Ingesting naphthalene mothballs may also cause methemoglobinemia, in which blood loses its ability to transfer oxygen from the lungs to tissues. This condition can rapidly result in coma and death if not recognized and treated appropriately. The first symptoms are a blue-gray skin color, shortness of breath, rapid pulse, and irritability or lethargy.
Naphthalene is potentially more dangerous to some African Americans and to persons of Mediterranean origin (e.g. Greek or Sicilian) who have lower amounts of the enzyme that aids in the metabolism of this compound.
Naphthalene fumes can irritate eyes, skin, and respiratory tract.
If inhaled over a long period of time, may cause kidney and liver damage; skin allergy/dermatitis; cataracts and retina damage.
If inhaled, can affect the central nervous system, causing headache, confusion, nausea, fatigue, vomiting, sweating, and disorientation.
Gastrointestinal disorders are common effects if naphthalene is swallowed. Nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain and diarrhea have been reported.
Inhaling naphthalene fumes can cause brain damage in infants.
Naphthalene has caused cancer in test animals inhaling it.
How Exposures Occur
Accidental Ingestion
Children may eat naphthalene-containing mothballs or deodorizing blocks used in toilets and diaper pails. They can also ingest naphthalene by touching the naphthalene products and putting their fingers in their mouths. A child playing in dirt that has naphthalene from a waste site could ingest the contaminated soil.
Contaminated Well Water
Children may be exposed to naphthalene in drinking water if they live near a hazardous waste site and draw their water from a private well.
From Indoor Air
Children can be exposed to naphthalene by breathing contaminated indoor air. Indoor air levels of naphthalene can rise with the presence of tobacco smoke in the home and use of mothballs, deodorizing blocks for toilets and diaper pails, and some toilet bowl cleaners. Clothing stored with mothballs may continue to emit naphthalene vapors, exposing children if they spend time in or near such clothing.
In Food
If naphthalene is used to treat lice or disinfect wounds on dairy cows or chickens, it can contaminate their milk and eggs. But this is unlikely source of exposure.
Inhaling Industrial Emissions
Children can inhale trace amounts of naphthalene in air contaminated with industrial discharges or from burning wood or fossil fuels.
Through the Skin
Naphthalene can be absorbed through the skin. Children can be exposed by touching mothballs or deodorizing blocks.
Significant Statistics
As much as 95-100% of a typical commercial moth control product may consist of paradichlorobenzene or naphthalene.
Most of the naphthalene entering the environment is from the burning of woods and fossil fuels in the home. The second greatest release of naphthalene is through the use of moth repellents.
Read labels on any moth-repelling product before purchase. Sachets of cedar or herbs may also contain naphthalene. If you are unsure about the ingredients in such products, ask the manufacturer to send you a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS), which they are required to provide.
Smell the product. Naphthalene in mothballs or in clothing that has been stored near mothballs can be identified by naphthalene’s distinct odor.
A search for naphthalene in the National Library of Medicine’s Household Products Database will show a list of products that contain it.
To find out if any industrial emissions of naphthalene have occurred near your home, see Environmental Defense’s Scorecard.
You can test your drinking water for naphthalene. For information on testing private wells and for state-certified laboratories, see the U.S. EPA Safe Drinking Water Pages, or call the Safe Drinking Water Hotline, 800-426-4791.
Dispose of mothballs and deodorizing blocks carefully to prevent children from finding them. Contact you local sanitation department or look up the hazardous waste rules in your community on Earth’s 911.
How to minimize exposure to naphthalene
Avoid using mothballs and deodorizer blocks in your home, particularly if you have small children, who may mistake them for candy and eat them. If you have used them, open windows and provide adequate ventilation throughout the home to reduce naphthalene fumes. Mothball-scented clothing and bedding should be thoroughly washed before use. Wash mothball-treated clothing and bedding thoroughly before use.
Reduce your children’s exposure to secondhand cigarette smoke.
Alternatives
To prevent moth infestations: Store clean clothing in airtight containers or sealed bags with cedar blocks, cedar shavings (available as cage bedding in pet stores), or cedar oil. Place cedar in drawers and closets. Inspect any used clothing or furniture carefully for moths or larvae before bringing them into the house, or clean them first.
Vigorously shaking clothes will remove larvae and eggs (remember to vacuum well afterwards). And the heat of the dryer will also kill larvae and eggs.
Avoid accumulating unused woolens. Never store dirty clothes.
To minimize unpleasant odors, keep toilets, garbage cans, and diaper pails clean. Leave an open box of baking soda nearby to absorb odors, and be sure your home is well-ventilated. How to Freshen Indoor Air Naturally has more suggestions.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Hazardous Products in the Home: Mothballs. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Region 5, and Agricultural and Biological Engineering, Purdue University.
Nitrates are a normal part of the diet, but can cause problems at excessive levels, particularly for infants.
Nitrates can build up in soil and groundwater, and they are taken up by plants as they grow. The usual sources of nitrate contamination are human sewage, animal manure (especially from feedlots), nitric oxides, and in particular nitrogen-based fertilizers, of which potassium nitrate and ammonium nitrate are the most common. The dangers of nitrate are related to their formation of nitrites in the body.
Both nitrates and nitrites are used as food additives in cured and processed meats and some smoked fish (see How Common Exposures Occur, below). They give cured meats, like bacon and hot dogs, a pink color. They may also protect against botulism. (But there are safer alternatives.)
Infants under four months of age that drink water or eat food contaminated with high levels of nitrates or nitrites are particularly at risk for health effects. For all children, nitrites are generally worrisome because they can interact with other substances in the body to form potential cancer-causing chemical called nitrosamines.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, nitrite, nitrate is Not Available
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, nitrite, nitrate is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), nitrite, nitrate is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is considered an Unclassifiable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Other
Rarely, a baby may develop methemoglobinemia, or blue baby syndrome. This can occur if water (particularly well water) containing high levels of nitrates is used to prepare infant formula, and very rarely if infants eat nitrate-rich spinach which has broken down into nitrite during storage. Nitrites can cause blood to lose its ability to transfer oxygen from the lungs to tissues, which rapidly can result in coma and death if not recognized and treated appropriately. The first symptoms are a blue-gray skin color, shortness of breath, rapid pulse, and irritability or lethargy. Infants with infections or with bacterially-contaminated drinking water are most at risk.
A number of studies consistently find an association between frequent consumption of cured meat by pregnant women and brain tumors in children. The evidence is suggestive but not conclusive. Some studies suggest a link between meets and childhood leukemia, either from parental occupation in meat handling or consumption of cured meats by pregnant women or children. The U.S. National Academy of Sciences does not consider that there is adequate evidence to support an association between nitrates or nitrites in drinking water and increased cancer rates.
Swallowing nitrate-based fertilizers can cause severe abdominal pain, bloody stools and urine, weakness, and collapse. Eight to fifteen grams of sodium or potassium nitrate is fatal for adults.
Frequent urination and hemorrhaging of the spleen from chronic exposures.
Some, but not all, epidemiological studies have found a link between nitrate-contaminated drinking water and stomach cancer.
Nitrate or nitrite exposure at high doses during pregnancy may adversely effect the unborn child. Evidence in humans is considered suggestive by some, but inadequate by others.
How Exposures Occur
From Drinking Water
Nitrate levels are regulated in public water supplies. But drinking water coming from private wells, particularly in agricultural areas can be contaminated with higher levels of nitrates, primarily from runoff of fertilizer, animal manure, and human sewage from septic tanks. Drinking water typically only contributes 2-3% of average total daily intake of nitrate and nitrite; however, in cases of well water contamination, up to 69% of daily nitrate exposure can come from water.
If you draw your water from a private well, water testing is advised, particularly if you have a baby or are pregnant (see Detection, below).
From Vegetables
For most people, the highest daily nitrate exposure is through its natural occurrence in vegetables, particularly beets, celery, lettuce, parsley, broccoli, carrots, radishes, rhubarb, spinach, melons and turnip greens. However, these foods contain ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and other vitamins that protect against nitrate poisoning and against the formation cancer-causing nitrosamines. Eating a diet rich in vegetables and fruits is the best way to reduce your overall cancer risk. Note that, while vegetables do make up about 85% of daily exposure to nitrates, they only make up about 16% of daily exposure to nitrites.
Significant Statistics
Nine percent of residential wells in farming areas contain nitrate levels exceeding the U.S. Public Health Service recommended limit of 10 milligrams of nitrate per liter of water, according to the U.S. Geological Survey.
Approximately 700 tons of nitrites are added to the 4 million tons of cured meats (ham, bacon, frankfurters, bologna, and sausage) and cured fish consumed in the United States each year.
Solutions
How to detect nitrite, nitrate
Nitrates and nitrites are regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act. This law requires that community water systems monitor nitrate and nitrite levels, and make public when levels exceed the set Maximum Contamination Level (MCL). The MCL for nitrates has been set at 10 mg/liter, or 10 parts per million (ppm), and for nitrites at 1 mg/liter, or 1 ppm.
Community water systems are required to produce annual consumer confidence reports and mail them to every water customer.
If your water source is a well, your water is not monitored for contaminants as is required for public water supplies by the Safe Drinking Water Act. Private testing of the water is necessary.
Even if your water comes from a community water system, contaminant levels can vary from house to house. You can have your water tested by sending samples to a certified laboratory.
You can search for water quality reports from your water provider, obtain information on well water testing and find a list of state-certified drinking water laboratories at the U.S. EPA’s Office of Water’s website or call the EPA’s Safe Drinking Water Hotline, 800-426-4791.
Read labels. As a precaution, you can limit or avoid your family’s consumption of packaged meats, such as hot dogs and bacon, that contain sodium nitrite as a preservative.
How to minimize exposure to nitrite, nitrate
If you draw your water from a private well with water that exceeds the permitted level of 10 mg. of nitrates per liter of water (or 1 mg. of nitrites) and if you are pregnant or with an infant, you may want to filter your drinking water, use bottled water for infant formulas, and breastfeed your baby.
Only the following types of water filtration methods have been approved by EPA for removing nitrates: ion exchange, reverse osmosis, or electrodialysis. Water filtration devices with only carbon or activated charcoal filters will not remove nitrates. A database of water filters certified by NSF International and the contaminants they remove from water is on NSF’s website.
Eat a diet high in antioxidants, such as vitamins C (ascorbic acid) and E, which reduce the conversion of nitrates into more toxic nitrites, and stop the breakdown of nitrites into carcinogenic nitrosamines.
Refrigerate your raw greens and vegetables, especially spinach, which is particularly rich in nitrates. Storing vegetables at room temperature causes their naturally-occurring nitrates to break down more quickly into nitrites, which are more toxic.
Alternatives
Breastfeed your infant, particularly if the water you would use to make infant formulas is drawn from a private well that may contain elevated nitrate and nitrite levels. Breastfed infants receive very little nitrate/nitrite exposure.
Eat fresh produce (locally-grown vegetables are freshest), or those that have been frozen, as nitrates will not convert to nitrates when foods are frozen.
Instead of processed meats, serve nitrite-free, certified organic meats or soy or wheat gluten meat-substitute sandwich meats, hot dogs, and bacon. They are available at most natural foods stores and many supermarkets.
Use natural, and therefore slow-release, fertilizers in place of synthetic nitrogen-based fertilizers, such as ammonium nitrate and potassium nitrate, to minimize your contribution of nitrogen to groundwater.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Hot Dogs: Questions and Answers. Cancer Prevention Coalition, 1994.
National Primary Drinking Water Regulations: Consumer Factsheet on Nitrates/Nitrites. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water, Ground Water and Drinking Water, Updated November 26, 2002.
The toxic effects of nitrate are closely related to its conversion to nitrite by bacteria in the mouth and stomach, and depends not only on dose, but also on the concentration and type of bacteria present. The stomach of infants is less acidic than that of adults and is thought to be more favorable to nitrate-converting bacteria, which is one reason for the heightened susceptibility of babies to nitrate-induced methemoglobinemia. Infants have also been found to be more likely to contract methemoglobinemia when they have diarrhea.
nitrogen oxides
Also Known As:
NO2, NOx, ozone, smog
Description
Nitrogen oxides are a family of gases produced whenever fuel burns. Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), a corrosive, brownish gas, is of major concern to the health of humans and the environment. Nitrogen dioxide is one of the six major pollutants of outdoor air in the U.S. It is a major cause of ground-level ozone (smog) and fine particulate soot in air. On the other hand, nitrogen oxide (NO) is fairly benign, but can be converted into nitrogen dioxide.
Nitrogen dioxide is present in vehicle exhaust and in the fumes from kerosene heaters, unvented gas stoves, space heaters, fireplaces, gas-fueled clothes dryers, and tobacco smoke. Nitrogen dioxide is also present in emissions from electric utilities and industrial boilers.
Nitrogen dioxide, and the resulting ozone and particulates, trigger asthma attacks. They also may cause asthma and other respiratory ailments.
When NO2 combines with water, it can form nitric acid, which contributes to acid rain. Acid rain can harm fish, damage forests and plants, and erode buildings. Nitrogen dioxide also increases the levels of nitrates and nitrites in water, and causes explosive growths of algae that deplete oxygen in water, killing fish and other aquatic life.
Children can be exposed to nitrogen dioxide indoors where gas appliances are used without adequate ventilation and if they live with smokers. Outdoors, ozone levels tend to be highest during the summer.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, nitrogen oxides is Not Available
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, nitrogen oxides is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), nitrogen oxides is Very Highly Toxic
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
Asthma Trigger
Other
At low levels, nitrogen dioxide fumes can irritate the lungs, eyes, nose and throat and cause coughing, fatigue and nausea. However, acute effects from indoor exposures are unlikely, except in occupational settings or as a result of faulty gas appliances in homes.
Exposure to NO2 may lower resistance to respiratory infections such as the flu, and may harm people with respiratory illness such as asthma, emphysema, and bronchitis. Children frequently exposed to elevated NO2 levels in air may experience higher rates of respiratory infections.
At levels likely to occur in air pollution, NO2 may increase the likelihood of asthma attacks in asthmatics. NO2 may also make asthmatics more sensitive to other allergens and asthma triggers, and may heighten respiratory irritation when they exercise. In some studies, increased levels of NO2 and other air pollutants have corresponded with increases in the number of asthma-related emergency room visits.
Ozone or smog, a byproduct of NO2, has been linked ot heart disease. Recent studies show that ozone causes arteries to close.
In offspring of test animals exposed during pregnancy, nitrogen dioxide has caused decreased birth weights and affected coordination and behavior. Long-term or repeated exposure may cause genetic mutations in humans.
How Exposures Occur
Combustion Appliance
Children can inhale nitrogen dioxide in homes where fuel-burning appliances, including gas stoves, gas space heaters, kerosene heaters, furnaces, and wood stoves are used, especially if they are in disrepair, used improperly or without proper ventilation.
Grain Silos
Children may inhale nitrogen dioxide if they enter silos that contain fermenting corn, hay, silage or grain.
Automobile Exhaust
Children can inhale nitrogen dioxide from car exhaust, particularly if they live close to busy streets or highways. Children in high-traffic urban environments are likely to breathe in more NO2 from car exhaust than kids in rural areas, with levels peaking during rush hours.
In enclosed spaces, such as garages, NO2 can reach dangerous levels if adequate ventilation is not provided.
Recent studies show that diesel school buses a source of exposure to school children.
Industrial Pollution
Children can inhale nitrogen dioxide from polluted outdoor air, particularly if they live near polluting facilities such as coal-fired electric utilities. NO2 primarily enters the air from fuel combustion by electric power plants and from automobile exhaust (see below).
Tobacco Smoke
Children can inhale traces of NO2 from secondhand tobacco smoke. NO2 levels may be 4-10 times higher in sidestream smoke (emitted between the puffs of a burning cigarette, pipe, or cigar) than in mainstream smoke (the smoke exhaled by the smoker).
Welding
Children can inhale nitrogen dioxide if someone is doing electric arc welding in the near vicinity.
Significant Statistics
Indoor levels of nitrogen dioxide often exceed outdoor levels in homes where gas stoves, kerosene heaters or un-vented gas space heaters are used. The average level of nitrogen dioxide in homes without these appliances is about half that of levels found outdoors.
Since 1970, emissions of the six principal air pollutants have decreased significantly with the exception of nitrogen oxides, which have increased approximately 10% over this period, according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (The six major air pollutants are: carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen oxides, particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, and volatile organic compounds.)
NOx: How Nitrogen Oxides Affect the Way We Live and Breathe. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, September 1998.
http://www.epa.gov/air/urbanair/nox/index.html
While nitrogen dioxide levels in urban areas have fallen, national emissions of nitrogen oxides have increased by 4% over the past 20 years. This increase is the result of a number of factors, the largest being an increase in nitrogen oxides emissions from diesel-fueled vehicles.
National Air Quality Status and Trends 2000: Nitrogen Dioxide. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, 2000.http://www.epa.gov/oar/aqtrnd00/nitrodox.html
Since 1970, emissions of nitrogen oxides from coal-fired power plants have increased 44 percent.
1997 National Air Quality: Status and Trends,Six Principal Pollutants-Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air & Radiation, December 1998.http://www.epa.gov/oar/aqtrnd97/brochure/no2.html
Solutions
How to detect nitrogen oxides
While NO2 has a pungent odor at high levels, its odor at levels just above normal levels is generally difficult to detect. However, indoor sources of NO2 often are accompanied by carbon monoxide, which can be detected with a carbon monoxide detector.
Always operate gas and kerosene appliances and wood stoves according to manufacturer specifications. Use the proper fuel in kerosene space heaters and never leave space heaters unattended.
Keep gas appliances properly maintained and in repair. Have gas appliances, furnaces and chimneys inspected, cleaned and tuned at least once a year. Repair leaks promptly. Use the proper fuel in kerosene space heaters and never leave space heaters unattended. When appliances are kept in good working condition and operated correctly, they produce few combustion pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide.
If you suspect any of your appliances could be leaking pollutants, your local gas companies may perform inspection services.
Always ventile well when using gas and kerosene appliances.
-Use an exhaust fan vented to outdoors every time you use a gas stove. The exhaust fan should be located above the stove. Note: In many cases, the fans in overhead stove hoods ARE NOT vented outdoors. Do not rely on these for ventilation. If you do not have an exhaust fan over your gas stove or the fan is not vented outdoors, always open a window while cooking.
-Open flues when fireplaces are in use.
Make your home a smoke-free zone. Keep children away from secondhand smoke.
Children should be kept from doing moderate to strenuous exercise outdoors when air pollution levels are high. Ozone tends to be highest in the summer. Many newspapers around the country report pollution levels. You can also check ozone levels by region at AirNOW, a U.S. Environmental Protection Agency website.
Children should also avoid exercising on playing fields near highways or other busy roads. Pollution levels can be high up to 50 feet from the roadway.
If you suspect your home contains elevated levels of nitrogen dioxide, evacuate sensitive individuals such as young children, the elderly, and those with respiratory diseases such as asthma or emphysema. If you can identify the source (e.g., a gas engine), turn it off and get fresh air into the area by opening windows and doors and using a window fan to increase ventilation. Call your local gas utility or a heating contractor for a home inspection. Repair, replacement, or proper ventilation of the appliance can eliminate the problem, once the NO2 source is identified.
Choose properly sized wood stoves that are certified to meet U.S. Environmental Protection Agency emission standards, and be sure doors on wood stoves fit tightly. Consider purchasing a vented space heater when replacing un-vented heaters. See How to Build a Safe Fire for information on fireplace safety.
Never leave a car or lawnmower engine running in a garage, shed or other enclosed spaces. Even if the garage door to the outside is open, fumes can build up very quickly in the garage and living area of your home.
Don’t use gasoline-powered appliances, engines or tools (mowers, weed trimmers, snow blowers, chain saws, small engines or generators) in enclosed or partly-enclosed spaces.
Air purifiers will not remove gases from indoor air. Ozone generators convert NO2 into nitric acid, which also poses health risks.
Alternatives
Using ovens and heating systems powered by electricity instead of fuels will reduce nitrogen dioxide emissions in the home; however, electric ovens are not as energy-efficient
as gas ovens. If you decide on gas appliances, choose appliances that vent their fumes to the outdoor whenever possible.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
What You Should Know About Combustion Appliances and Indoor Air Pollution. U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and The American Lung Association, Updated March 15, 1999.
http://www.epa.gov/iaq/pubs/combust.html
What You Should Know About Space Heaters Used for Supplemental Room Heating. U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, February 2001.
http://www.cpsc.gov/CPSCPUB/PUBS/463.html
The Inside Story: A Guide to Indoor Air Quality. U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
http://www.cpsc.gov/CPSCPUB/PUBS/450.html#Look4
Danger In The Air: The 2001 Ozone Season Summary. U.S. PIRG Education Fund, August 2002.
http://uspirg.org/uspirg.asp?id2=7727&id3=USPIRG&
State of the Air 2002. American Lung Association, May 2002.
These synthetic preservatives are frequently used in cosmetics and personal care products, such as shampoos, conditioners, hair styling gels, nail creams, foundations, facial masks, skin creams, and deodorants. Parabens can be an ingredient in baby lotions, shampoos, and other personal care products for children.
Methyl and propyl parabens are also allowed for use as food preservatives in small quantities. They are considered “Generally Recognized As Safe” for food uses.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, parabens is Slightly Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, parabens is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), parabens is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is considered an Unclassifiable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Allergen
Suspected Endocrine Disruptor = May interfere with, mimic or block hormones
Other
May cause skin irritation, rash or dermatitis, or allergic skin reactions.
Parabens have been found to act like the hormone estrogen in laboratory experiments, although the activity was somewhat weak.
How Exposures Occur
Eating Processed Foods
Children may ingest parabens in small quantities from processed foods that contain parabens.
Skin Absorption from Personal Care Products
Parabens can penetrate a child’s skin and scalp after use of skin and hair care products that contain parabens.
Significant Statistics
Parabens are the most widely used cosmetic preservatives in the United States.
Stehlin, Dori. Cosmetic Safety: More Complex Than at First Blush. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, FDA Consumer, Revised May 1995.
http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/cos-safe.html
A survey of 215 cosmetics found that 99% of those used on the skin contained parabens.
Solutions
How to detect parabens
Read labels. Look for the ingredients butylparaben, ethylparaben, methylparaben, or propylparaben on ingredient listings on personal care products and processed food packaging.
A search for any of these chemicals in the National Library of Medicine’s Household Products Database will show a list of brands that contain them.
You can search for personal care products containing parabens on Environmental Working Group’s Skin Deep Searchable Product Guide website.
How to minimize exposure to parabens
Alternatives
Natural personal care products are sold in natural foods stores. Some may still contain parabens, so check labels before purchasing.
Whole, certified organic and minimally processed foods generally do not contain synthetic preservatives.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Stehlin, Dory. Cosmetic Safety: More Complex Than at First Blush. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, FDA Consumer, Revised May 1995.
http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/cos-safe.html
Other government agencies
U.S. Food and Drug Administration
Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition
5100 Paint Branch Parkway
College Park, MD 20740-3835
888-INFO-FDA (888-463-6332)
Perchloroethylene, or perc, is a solvent used widely by dry cleaners to clean clothing and other textiles. It easily evaporates and emits a sharp, sweet odor, even at very low levels. Perc is a common indoor air pollutant in homes.
Perc may also be an ingredient in spot removers, rug and upholstery cleaners, water repellents, aerosols, adhesives, sealants, wood cleaners and polishes, lubricants, typewriter correction fluid and shoe polish. It is also commonly used as a metal degreasing solvent.
Even if children do not wear dry cleaned clothes, they may still be exposed to the perc used to clean clothes of other members of the household. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has found that emissions from freshly dry cleaned clothing cause levels of perc to rise in homes.
Perc accumulates in fatty tissue and breast milk. Families living above dry cleaning facilities can be exposed to high levels of perc.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, perchloroethylene is Moderately Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, perchloroethylene is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), perchloroethylene is Slightly Toxic
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is likely to cause cancer. It is considered a Probable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Neurotoxin = Can harm brain and central nervous system
Other
Eye, skin and respiratory tract irritation
Liver and kidney damage
If inhaled at high doses, can affect the nervous system, causing intoxication, memory loss, confusion, dizziness, fatigue, drowsiness, headache, nausea, weakness, unconsciousness.
Perc has caused cancer in animals. Studies of people exposed to perc suggest a connection between exposure and some cancers.
There is some evidence among workers at dry cleaner facilities, where exposure to perc can be quite high, of higher rates of spontaneous abortion and menstrual irregularities, but it is not known whether perc is the cause. There is also some suggestion from a few small studies of dry cleaners that perc has effects on sperm quality and fertility, however the results are not conclusive. Results of animal studies suggest that perc can cross over the placenta to expose the embryo and fetus.
How Exposures Occur
Drinking Water
Perc can contaminate drinking water when it leaches from vinyl liners in some types of pipelines used for water distribution, and when it’s formed in small quantities during chlorination treatment of water.
From the Air
Children can inhale perc fumes if they reside in an apartment above or near a dry cleaning establishment.
Coin-operated Dry Cleaning Establishments
Potentially large exposures occur in coin-operated dry cleaning establishments, where measured levels can be high. In one study, the amount of perc measured in the air was almost one-third the amount allowed in occupational settings.
Prenatal Exposure
In the womb, developing babies may be exposed to perc that crosses over the placenta of mothers working in or above or next door to dry cleaning establishments.
From Breast Milk
Babies may be exposed to perc in breast milk of mothers working in or above or next door to dry cleaning establishments.
However, the benefits for babies from breast feeding outweigh the risks of perc exposure. Breastfed babies are healthier than those who are bottle-fed; they experience fewer allergies, respiratory illnesses, and skin problems. In its 1997 policy statement, Breastfeeding and the Use of Human Milk, the American Academy of Pediatrics highly recommends breast feeding for all infants for one year.
Dry-cleaned clothing
Children can inhale perc emitted by clothing that has been recently dry cleaned.
In Food
Though perc has been detected in fatty foods, such as butter, that were stored in homes or supermarkets adjacent to dry cleaners, this kind of exposure is unlikely.
Significant Statistics
In one study, 24 of 29 apartments located above dry cleaners using modern machines (which emit less perc than older equipment) in New York City had perc levels in indoor air above the state health guideline. Eight apartments had average levels 10 times over the state health guideline, and one was over 250 times higher.
Perchloroethylene concentrations in homes with freshly dry-cleaned clothing stored in the closets may be 2 to 30 times higher than average background levels. In addition, workers in the dry-cleaning industry are a source of exposure to their families. In one study, indoor air concentrations in apartments where dry cleaning workers lived were more than 10-fold higher than in other apartments.
“Tetrachloroethylene (Perchloroethylene), CAS No. 127-18-4: Reasonably Anticipated to be a Human Carcinogen.” Tenth Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program, December 2002.http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/roc/tenth/profiles/s169tetr.pdf
Releases of perchloroethylene into the environment decreased by ten-fold between 1988 (37.7 million pounds) and 1999 (3.7 million pounds), according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s 2001 Toxic Release Inventory. Demand for perc is increasing, however, from 280 million pounds used nationwide in 1996 to 318 million pounds in 1999. The projected demand for 2003 is 340 million pounds.
“Tetrachloroethylene (Perchloroethylene), CAS No. 127-18-4: Reasonably Anticipated to be a Human Carcinogen.” Tenth Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program, December 2002.http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/roc/tenth/profiles/s169tetr.pdf
Solutions
How to detect perchloroethylene
If you live above or near a dry cleaner, you may want to have your indoor air tested for perchloroethylene, particularly if you are, or plan to be, pregnant or breastfeeding a child. The Indoor Air Quality Hotline (see below) can help you find a specialist.
Perchloroethylene is regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act. This law requires that community water systems monitor perc levels, and make public when levels exceed the set Maximum Contamination Level (MCL). The MCL for perc has also been set at 5 parts per billion (ppb).
Community water systems are required to produce annual consumer confidence reports and mail them to every water customer.
If your water source is a well, your water is not monitored for contaminants as is required for public water supplies by the Safe Drinking Water Act. Private testing of the water is necessary.
Even if your water comes from a community water system, contaminant levels can vary from house to house. You can have your water tested by sending samples to a certified laboratory.
You can search for water quality reports from your water provider, obtain information on well water testing and find a list of state-certified drinking water laboratories at the U.S. EPA’s Office of Water’s website or call the EPA’s Safe Drinking Water Hotline, 800-426-4791.
How to minimize exposure to perchloroethylene
Some clothing labeled ‘Dry Clean Only’ may be safely handwashed, according to Consumer Reports. ‘Dry Clean Only’ labels are overused because manufacturers prefer to err on the side of caution.
Handwash plain-weave rayon and solid-colored silks separately in cool water, squeeze rather than wring, and lay flat to dry.
Wash sweaters in cold water by hand or machine; cashmere and cotton do best in the washing machine inside out; dry sweaters flat, except cotton sweaters, which can be machine-dried.
Angora sweaters and structured or lined garments should be sent to a professional cleaner, however.
If dry-cleaned goods have a strong chemical odor when you pick them up, ask your cleaner to dry them further. If it keeps happening, switch to a different cleaner.
Air out dry-cleaned garments by taking them out of the plastic sheath and hanging them briefly outdoors before bringing them indoors.
Alternatives
Wetcleaning, a professional alternative to perchloroethylene that uses cardon dioxide instead, is also available. Look for a cleaner near you at the Professional Wetcleaning Network’s website.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Fagin, Dan, Marianne Lavelle, and the Center for Public Integrity. Toxic Deception: How the Chemical Industry Manipulates Science, Bends the Law, and Endangers Your Health. Secaucus, NJ: Birch Lane Press, 1996.
Other government agencies
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics
Ariel Rios Building
1200 Pennsylvania Ave. NW
Washington DC 20460
202-260-1023
Indoor Air Quality Hotline: 800-438-4318
After exposure, perchloroethylene collects in human fat tissue. It is slowly released into the bloodstream and can be detected in the breath for weeks following a heavy exposure.
ToxFAQs for Tetrachloroethylene (Perc). Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, September 1997.
Perchloroethylene is toxic to aquatic organisms.
International Chemical Safety Card: Tetrachloroethylene, ICSC: 0076. World Health Organization, International Labour Organization, International Occupational Safety and Health Information Center, April 2000.
Perfluorinated chemicals (PFCs) are a family of fluorinated organic compounds that are manufactured to give coatings like Teflon® and Scotchgard® their nonstick and water- and stain-repellent qualities. These coatings are used on cookware, carpets, clothing, shoes, bedding, mattresses and upholstered furniture. PFCs have also been used in food wraps, sprays for leather and shoes an, paints and cleaning products, shampoo, floor wax, dental floss and some cosmetics. (For a listing of products, see Environmental Working Group’s Shopper’s Guide to PFCs
PFCs are extremely persistent once they are released into the environment, accumulating in humans and wildlife. They can remain in human tissue for many years.
PFCs have fallen under scrutiny from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) since the late 1990s, when widespread low-level contamination was found in blood samples from the U.S. general population, in wildlife and in the environment.
EPA is investigating a similar perfluorinated chemical, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA, also known as C8), the active ingredient in Teflon nonstick coatings. A preliminary report, issued January 2005, raises concerns that people may face risks of developmental and other adverse effects from low-level exposure to PFOA based on animal studies. (EPA Draft Risk Assessment)
EPA has also assessed fines against DuPont for hiding information and studies that linked potential health risks to its workers and communities surrounding its plants. (Washington Post)
Children may be exposed through normal use of PFC-coated products. In addition, nonstick pans heated at high temperatures may give off fumes. To avoid fumes, do not heat empty pans or use them in the oven.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, perfluorinated polymers is Not Available
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, perfluorinated polymers is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), perfluorinated polymers is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is considered an Unclassifiable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Suspected Endocrine Disruptor = May interfere with, mimic or block hormones
Other
At extremely high temperatures, nonstick cookware may release fumes that can cause flu-like symptoms known as “polymer fume fever.” These toxic fumes can kill pet birds. (EWG: Canaries)
Company tests have found higher cholesterol levels in workers occupationally exposed to PFOA. Elevated cholesterol is a risk factor for stroke and heart attack. (EPA draft, EWG)
There is some evidence PFOA causes cancer. In tests on animals, PFOA produced liver tumors. Tests on mice have shown that PFOA exposure also damages the immune system. (EPA exec summ)
Suspected hormone disruptors. Elevated levels of the thyroid hormone T3 were found in workers with higher PFOA levels in their blood. (EPA executive summary) PFOS may suppress both thyroid hormones, T3 and T4. (our stolen future http://www.ourstolenfuture.org/Basics/chemlist.htm)
Possibility of birth defects. Newborn rats prenatally exposed to PFOA had facial defects. Similar defects showed up in 2 of 5 babies born to DuPont plant employees in 1981.
Solutions
How to detect perfluorinated polymers
How to minimize exposure to perfluorinated polymers
Permethrin, a pyrethroid insecticide, is a chlorinated, synthetic form of pyrethrum, an insecticide derived from chrysanthemum flowers. (Permethrin is longer acting than pyrethrum.) It has multiple uses, including head lice and scabies treatments, insect repellents, household insect foggers and sprays, tick and flea sprays for yards and pets, termite treatments, agricultural and livestock products, mosquito abatement, forestry and treatment of timber.
Though permethrin is often used as the primary active ingredient in consumer products, it may also be combined with more toxic organophosphate or carbamate insecticides. Regardless of the formulation, care should be taken to keep infants from being exposed to permethrin because they may be more sensitive.
Head lice are becoming resistant to permethrin treatments. The alternative, malathion, is not considered by CHEC to be safe for young children.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, permethrin is Moderately Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, permethrin is Moderately Toxic
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), permethrin is Slightly Toxic
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
Allergen
Neurotoxin = Can harm brain and central nervous system
Suspected Endocrine Disruptor = May interfere with, mimic or block hormones
Allergy-like and respiratory reactions, such as coughing, sneezing, nasal stuffiness, breathing difficulties, pulmonary edema (fluid in the lungs). (More likely among those who are allergic to ragweed and pollens.)
Salivation, headache, dizziness, fatigue, vomiting, diarrhea at high doses.
Nerve damage, seizures, twitching, incoordination, irritability to sound and touch at extremely high doses
Enlargement of liver.
Newborns may be more sensitive than adults to permethrin, based on results from animal studies.
How Exposures Occur
Accidental Ingestion
Children may pick up residues of permethrin from treated surfaces and then ingest them after putting their fingers and hands in their mouths.
Food
Children may consume residues of permethrin found on fruits and vegetables, and in baby food.
Inhalation
Permethrin may drift after it is sprayed both indoors and outdoors. Children and others may accidently breathe fumes containing the pesticide. Permethrin is sometimes used aboard airplanes.
Skin
Children can absorb permethrin from lice shampoos or scabie treatments that are used directly on the skin or scalp. They may also absorb permethrin after touching treated surfaces and pets.
Water
The U.S.Geologic Survey has found permethrin in surface and ground water supplies. However, levels in drinking water have not been reported and are not considered likely.
Significant Statistics
Permethrin accounted for 83% of the risk from pesticide residues in domestically produced canned spinach, as calculated by Consumers Union.
Read labels to determine if permethrin is in products in your home or check PAN’s Pesticide Database for a list of brands and products containing this pesticide. If you hire a professional exterminator, ask for safety information, such as a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS), for the products used.
Food: There is no way for parents to determine exactly how much permethrin may be in their children’s food. You can get a rough idea of the fruits and vegetables that may contain permethrin from:
Avoid Exposure: Ask your neighbors for notification when they spray permethrin and other pesticides outdoors. Bring in pets, laundry, toys, and other outdoor equipment. Cover outdoor tables and ornamental fish ponds. Remain inside while spraying takes place, close windows and doors and turn off your air conditioning (or set it to circulate indoor air) before spraying begins. Keep children inside at least one hour after spraying. Avoid direct contact with surfaces that are still wet from pesticide spraying.
Wash skin and clothing exposed to permethrin with soap and water.
Alternatives
Instead of using insect repellents containing resmethrin, wear protective clothing outdoors, with long sleeves and pant legs. Inspect for ticks after outdoor activities. In regions where Lyme disease and West Nile virus have been identified, use of an insect repellent may be necessary. Insect repellents containing permethrin should only be used on clothing, not skin! Inspect for ticks when returning indoors.
Use a lice comb to remove lice and nits by hand, using a lice comb, rather than relying on pesticide shampoos. This must be done regularly to ensure that all lice and nits are removed.
Shampoos made with enzymes from natural vegetable extracts are a safe and effective alternative to toxic pesticides. The enzymes loosen the “glue” that holds nits in the hair so that they can be combed out.
Choose least-toxic pest control methods, such as Integrated Pest Management, for your home garden, lawn and shrubs. Prevent insects from entry into homes: Repair or install window and door screens; remove standing water outdoors (in roof gutters, old tires, buckets and wading pools) and repair leaky plumbing; seal trash containers.
Buy certified organic foods, which are grown without synthetic pesticides, when you can. See 10 foods to Buy Organic. Otherwise, wash fruits and vegetables well and peel them.
OVERKILL: Why Pesticide Spraying for West Nile Virus May Cause More Harm Than Good. Toxics Action Center and Maine Environmental Policy Institute, July 2001.
http://www.meepi.org/wnv/mass.htm
How to Use Insect Repellents Safely, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (April, 2002).
Phthalates are a class of chemicals used as softeners, or plasticizers, in polyvinyl chloride (PVC, vinyl) products, including children’s toys, decorating and building products, and blood bags, and solvents and other additives in a wide range of consumer products, including cosmetics, personal care products, wood finishes and insecticides.
DEHP and DINP are used in flexible plastic and vinyl toys, some teethers, food packaging and cling wraps, medical devices, backpacks, shower curtains, building materials such as pipes, vinyl flooring and wallpaper, and other products.
DBP and DEP are used in some adhesives, dyesinks, mosquito insect repellents, plastic plumbing pipes, and personal care products such as nail polish, skin moisturizers, and perfumes.
Note: The carcinogenicity of DEP, DBP and DINP to humans is unknown at this time.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, phthalates is Slightly Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, phthalates is Moderately Toxic
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), phthalates is Slightly Toxic
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is likely to cause cancer. It is considered a Probable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Allergen
Suspected Endocrine Disruptor = May interfere with, mimic or block hormones
Development Toxicant = Can interfere with normal development of a fetus or child
Reproductive Toxicant = Can harm reproductive system
Other
Birth defects, including cleft palate and in male reproductive organs, due to prenatal exposure. In laboratory animals, exposure to some phthalates prior to or after birth caused damaged, shrunken, undescended, or atrophied testicles; reduced sperm production; destruction of Sertoli cells, which produce sperm; and lowered testosterone levels in offspring. In humans, some studies have found decreased sperm counts and damaged sperm in men with higher levels of some phthalates. There is also evidence phthalate exposure may be linked to preterm births.
DEHP causes liver cancer in laboratory animals and is considered a probable human carcinogen by the U.S. EPA and the National Toxicology Program of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The EPA also considers butyl benzyl phthalate a possible human carcinogen. However, the World Health Organization considers the two phthalates to be “not classifiable” as to their carcinogenicity to humans.
Harm to normal development. An expert panel has expressed “serious concern” for the possibility of harm to the developing reproductive system in infant boys exposed to high levels of DEHP that may occur with intensive medical procedures, such as those used for critically ill infants. The panel also expressed “concern” about exposure of pregnant women and the possibility of harm to the development of their children.
At high doses, some phthalates have damaged the liver and kidneys of laboratory animals.
Respiratory difficulties in children with bronchial obstruction (such as asthma).
In a September 2000 study, Puerto Rican researchers reported that phthalates had been detected in baby girls, aged 6 months to eight years, with premature breast development. The average levels of DEHP was six times greater in the early developers than in babies who had not experienced premature breast development.
How Exposures Occur
Drinking Water
DEHP may be found in some public or private drinking water supplies. The Safe Drinking Water Act regulated DEHP levels in public water supplies, but not in well water. Other forms of phthalates, which may also be found in drinking water, however, are not regulated.
Eating Contaminated Food
Phthalates can enter foods and infant formulas from plastic tubing used during food processing or from plastic and paper packaging. Phthalates can also contaminate food earlier through background environmental contamination levels. The highest concentrations tend to be in fatty foods, such as milk and dairy products, fish, meat and vegetable oils.
Inhalation
Children can inhale phthalates that are released from vinyl (PVC) products into indoor air.
IV Tubing
IV tubing and other medical devices used for ill infants/children. An expert panel expressed “serious concern” about DEHP as used to make polyvinyl chloride (PVC) medical tubing and other medical devices for feeding and medicating critically ill newborn infants and for assisting their breathing. The panel said such procedures might result in exposures to DEHP that are much higher than for the general population and could affect development of the male reproductive system.
Mouthing or Chewing Vinyl Products
Infants and children may swallow small amounts of phthalates when they chew soft vinyl teethers, toys, raincoats, and vinyl miniblinds. Dust in rooms with vinyl miniblinds, wallpaper and flooring may also contain phthalates. (Sunlight causes PVC to deteriorate into dust.)
Use of Some Personal Care Products
Phthalates can be inhaled and to limited extent absorbed through the skin from some brands of perfume, nail polish, skin lotion, deodorant, and hair spray and other hair styling products. Some companies have reformulated their nail polishes without DBP. Both DBP and DEHP (in some fragrances) will be banned from products sold in European Union countries effective September 2004.
Prescription Pills
Some oral medications are coated with phthalates to control when the pills dissolve. New evidence indicates that this may be a significant source of phthalate exposure for some patients.
Significant Statistics
Any children between 0-18 months in age who mouth PVC plastic toys containing DINP for 3 hours/day exceed the recommended Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI). This implies that there may be a DINP risk for any young children who routinely mouth DINP-plasticized toys for 75 minutes/day or more.
Worldwide, manufacturers produce an estimated billion pounds of phthalates every year.
In a recent study of 289 adults, scientists at the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention found a metabolite of DBP in the urine of every person tested, with the highest levels in women of child-bearing age. This metabolite is a reproductive and developmental toxicant in rodents.
Children age 6 months to 4 years have the highest daily DEHP exposure from combined sources, such as foods, indoor air and water.
Expert Panel Report on Di(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate. National Toxicology Program, U.S. Deptartment of Health and Human Services, Center for the Evaluation of Risks to Human Reproduction, October 2000.http://cerhr.niehs.nih.gov/news/phthalates/report.html
U.S. industrial facilities released over 1.3 million pounds of DEHP into the environment in 1998, according to EPA’s Toxic Release Inventory.
Flexible polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastics may contain up to 40 percent di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate. PVC resins have been used to manufacture many products, including toys, dolls, vinyl upholstery, tablecloths, shower curtains, raincoats, garden hoses, swimming pool liners, shoes, floor tiles, disposable medical examination and surgical gloves, medical tubing, blood storage bags, and other products.
“Di(2-ethylhexyl)Phthalate: Reasonably Anticipated to be a Human Carcinogen.” Tenth Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program, December 2002.http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/roc/tenth/profiles/s087dehp.pdf
Solutions
How to detect phthalates
Nearly all soft PVC, vinyl and most fake leather, or plethor, contains phthalates. Call toy manufacturers to to ask whether favorite toys are made of PVC, and while you’re at it, express your concern. You can obtain contact information for some toy manufacturers from Greenpeace’s web site.
Read labels on personal care products: Look for chemical names that include the word phthalate on nail polish, nail polish remover, hair sprays, deodorants and perfumes. Many products may not list phthalates even when they are used. Try contacting the manufacturer. Often toll-free numbers for customer assistance are listed on labels.
Also visit Health Care Without Harm’s listing of products containing phthalates (based on laboratory tests). A search for “phthalate” on the National Library of Medicine’s Household Products Database will also show a list of products containing it.
Sniff Test: That “new car” or “plastic” smell from soft plastic toys, backpacks, teethers, raincoats and other plastic products usually comes from phthalates, which vaporize from plastic easily.
DEHP is regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act. This law requires that community water systems monitor DEHP levels, and make public when levels exceed the set Maximum Contamination Level (MCL). The MCL for DEHP has also been set at 6 parts per billion. NOTE: Other phthalates are NOT regulated under the Act. Therefore, public water facilities are not required to test for them.
Community water systems are required to produce annual consumer confidence reports and mail them to every water customer.
If your water source is a well, your water is not monitored for contaminants as is required for public water supplies by the Safe Drinking Water Act. Private testing of the water is necessary.
Even if your water comes from a community water system, contaminant levels can vary from house to house. You can have your water tested by sending samples to a certified laboratory.
You can search for water quality reports from your water provider, obtain information on well water testing and find a list of state-certified drinking water laboratories at the U.S. EPA’s Office of Water’s website or call the EPA’s Safe Drinking Water Hotline, 800-426-4791.
You can search for personal care products containing phthalates on Environmental Working Group’s Skin Deep Searchable Product Guide website.
How to minimize exposure to phthalates
Throw away soft PVC teethers and any PVC toys — generally soft and flexible — that a child could put in his or her mouth. Replace with new items that don’t contain phthalates. An added measure of safety would be to discard any soft vinyl toy, backpack or accessory that your child owns. Find natural or hard plastic replacements aren’t made of PVC, such a cloth dolls and wooden toys, Legos®, etc.
Reduce or eliminate use of perfumes, nail polishes or other cosmetics that contain phthalates, especially if you are pregnant, thinking of getting pregnant, or if you are nursing.
Alternatives
Wooden or non-PVC plastic toys, such as those made by Baby Vision,® Brio,® Early Start,® Lego,® Little Tikes,® Primetime Playthings,® Viking Toys,® Gerber toys, Sassy,® (except vinyl photo album) Tiny Love,® (except Discovery Lane) Learning Curve® by Lamaze (except My First Fish Bowl, Fill & Spill, Tub Frogs Inflatable Drum).
Go natural. When possible, choose natural alternatives to common vinyl products. Look for hemp or linen shower curtains (which can be washed to stop mold), cloth backpacks, flooring made of wood or cork or natural linoleum, wood siding and window frames, and paperboard-covered notebooks.
Choose natural cosmetics and personal care products which can be found in natural foods stores. L’Oreal Paris Jet-Set Quick Dry Nail Enamel,® Revlon Nail Enamel,® Kiss Products Kiss Colors,® and Garden Botanika Natural Color Nail Color® are all free of phthalates and other toxins such as toluene and formaldehyde, according to the Environmental Working Group.
For fragrance, choose pure essential oils instead of perfumes. Use discretion though—fragrances can irritate both sensitive children and adults and those that allergies or asthma. See Fragrances in Perfumes and Cosmetics for more information.
Avoid microwaving in plastics and plastic wraps.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Montague, Peter. “Here We Go Again,” Rachel’s Environment and Health Weekly, No. 708 (September 14, 2000).
Raloff, Janet. “New Concerns about Phthalates: Ingredients of Common Plastics, May Harm Boys as They Develop,” Science News (September 2, 2000).
Houlihan, Jane, and Richard Wiles. Beauty Secrets: Does a Common Chemical in Nail Polish Pose Risks to Human Health? Environmental Working Group, November 2000.
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) are bromine-based compounds used as flame retardants in plastic and foam consumer products � primarily electronics, furnishing, and insulation used around wires and in the home � since the 1970s. There are as many as 209 individual PBDE compounds, and they often occur in mixtures. The three most widely used mixtures in consumer products are deca-BDE, octa-BDE, and penta-BDE. Structurally, PBDEs are very similar to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs), which were also once used as flame retardants and insulators. Both PCBs and PBBs are banned or severely restricted in most countries due to health and environmental effects.
There is little information on the health effects of PBDEs in humans. Animal studies have shown that PBDEs affect thyroid hormone functions and can impair the developing central nervous system and brain. There is also evidence that PBDEs may be more toxic when combined with PCBs. The toxicity of PBDEs varies by type due to their differing chemical structures.
Until recently, brominated flame retardants were considered safe. However, in 1999, Swedish researchers discovered much greater amounts in human breast milk than had been detected twenty-five years earlier. Subsequent studies have found an even sharper rise in U.S. women, leading some researchers to conclude that PBDE levels in North Americans are 10 to 20 times higher than in Europeans and are doubling at a rate of every four to six years. This has raised concern among many scientists and environmental health advocates.
PBDEs easily enter the surrounding environment. Like other organohalogen compounds, they can persist in the environment for decades, travel far, and accumulate in fat tissues of animals. As a result, PBDEs also have been found � at surprisingly high levels � in wildlife, soil sediments and sewage sludge. PBDE levels tend to rise up the food chain, with the highest levels in large, predatory animals and fish.
PBDEs can cross the placenta, exposing the fetus. Infants are exposed to PBDEs through breast milk. Children take in PBDEs from animal foods and house dust, and possibly from gases that vaporize from household products containing PBDEs. These will persist in their bodies though adulthood.
The following products usually contain PBDEs: computers, television sets, mobile phones, electronics and electrical items, automotive equipment, construction materials, polyurethane foam mattresses, cushions, carpets, upholstered furniture, and draperies, among others. PBDEs typically constitute between 5 and 30 percent of the product�s net weight.
As early as the mid-1990s, European companies started voluntarily phasing out PBDE production in favor of alternative flame retardants. The European Union banned penta-BDE in 2004 and will phase out deca-BDE by 2006. In European countries where PBDE use has been discontinued, the level of PBDEs found in humans is dropping.
But in the U.S., there are no federal regulations restricting use of PBDEs, even though body burdens here appear to be the highest in the world and are still rising. In 2003, California voted to ban penta- and octa-BDE by 2008. A few months after, the sole American manufacturer of these two chemicals agreed to take them off the market by the end of 2004. But, deca-BDE, the most widely used PBDE, will continue to be used in the U.S. A number of states have enacted or are considering legislation to regulate or ban PBDEs.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) is Slightly Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) is Slightly Toxic
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) is Slightly Toxic
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
Neurotoxin = Can harm brain and central nervous system
Suspected Endocrine Disruptor = May interfere with, mimic or block hormones
Other
In animal studies, exposure to PBDEs harmed the developing brain and nervous system, causing deficits in learning and memory and behavioral alterations.
PBDEs disrupt thyroid hormone in animals. Studies have found that they affect the thyroid gland and decrease levels of T4, a hormone essential to proper nervous system development, in the bloodstream. Exposure to PBDEs in the womb and through nursing have also caused thyroid effects in animals.
Cancer. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has classified deca-BDE, the most commonly used PBDE, a possible carcinogen. This is based on increases in liver tumors in exposed laboratory animals. The agency has listed penta- and octa-BDEs as unclassifiable as to carcinogenicity, most likely because of lack of data.
Other animal studies have found effects on the liver, immune system, and reproductive system, including delays in onset of puberty.
How Exposures Occur
DUST and POSSIBLY GASES from PBDE-CONTAINING PRODUCTS
Children may inhale, touch or ingest PBDEs in dust and possibly also gases released from PBDE-containing products. These include polyurethane foam furniture and mattresses (penta-BDE), and computers, television sets, cell phones, and other electrical and electronic appliances (deca-BDE). PBDE-containing products release PBDE particles into indoor air, as shown by findings of high levels of PBDEs in household dust and in residues collected from window surfaces. PBDE levels appear to be higher indoors than outside.
IN BREAST MILK
PBDEs are found in human breast milk. There is a potential for infants to ingest PBDEs. However, the benefits for babies from breast feeding outweigh the risks of PBDE exposure. Breastfed babies are healthier than those who are bottle-fed; they experience fewer allergies, respiratory illnesses, and skin problems. In its 1997 policy statement, Breastfeeding and the Use of Human Milk, the American Academy of Pediatrics highly recommends breast feeding for all infants for one year.
IN FOOD
Children, as well as adults, can ingest PBDEs in high-fat foods such as fish, meat, and eggs, since PBDEs accumulate in the fatty tissues of animals. Farmed salmon, which are fed a diet high in fatty fish oils, have been found to contain higher PBDE concentrations than wild salmon.
PRENATAL
PBDEs appear to pass readily through the placenta, as shown by similar PBDE levels found in the blood of mothers and their newborns. Mothers will have accumulated a significant load of PBDEs throughout their lifetime. They are slow to leave the body, sometimes persisting for decades.
Significant Statistics
In 2001 alone, North American industries used approximately 73 million pounds of PBDEs, accounting for almost half the world market.
Over the past 30 years, body concentrations of PBDEs have doubled every 4 to 6 years. PBDE concentrations in North Americans are 10 to 20 times higher than they are in Europeans.
In a recent study measuring PBDE concentrations in breast milk of 20 first-time mothers across the U.S., PBDE concentrations were on average 75 times higher than levels in recent European studies.
Mothers’ Milk: Record levels of toxic fire retardant found in American mothers’ breast milk. Environmental Working Group, September 2003.http://www.ewg.org/reports/mothersmilk/
Ninety percent of electrical and electronic appliances contain brominated flame retardants.
As much as 30 percent of the weight of polyurethane foam consists of penta-BDE flame retardants.
Solutions
How to detect polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs)
Consumers can expect to find PBDEs in nearly all electronics and items made of polyurethane foam, such as furniture, cushions and carpet pads. The following products usually contain PBDEs: computers, television sets, mobile phones, electronics and electrical items, automotive equipment, construction materials, polyurethane foam mattresses, cushions, carpets, upholstered furniture, and draperies, among others.
Most products, with the exception of some computers and computer components, are not labeled as made with PBDEs.
Some computer companies list the toxic components found in their products in the product’s manual. These companies are complying with a voluntary international certification and labeling standards program based in Sweden known as TCO. Approved products must not exceed the approved levels of heavy metals, brominated and chlorinated flame retardants, and CFCs (freon). The standards also deal with energy efficiency, electrical and magnetic fields, and fire safety.
Many manuals can be downloaded on the manufacturers’ websites. You can also find TCO-approved products on TCO’s website.
How to minimize exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs)
Reduce consumption of high-fat fish, meat and dairy products, and choose low-fat versions. PBDEs accumulate in animal fats. Fish appear to be the most contaminated food source, although more testing is needed.
Instead, choose foods that are low in fat, such as skim and low-fat dairy products, skinless chicken breast meat, turkey. Small, low-fat and non-predatory seafoods—such as shrimp, tilapia and flounder—are also less likely to contain to contain PBDEs, as are salmon that are wild-caught instead of farmed. (All salmon labeled “Atlantic” are farmed.)
Because PBDEs are added to so many consumer products, and contamination is so pervasive in American homes, it may be impossible to avoid some exposure, measurements of PBDEs in household dust suggest.
Minimizing exposure to household dust may reduce PBDE exposure:
—Vacuum carpets and upholstered furniture at least twice weekly. Open windows while vacuuming to disperse dust in vacuum’s exhaust. Use multi-layered vacuum bags instead of regular single layer bags, and use a vacuum with a high-efficiency, or HEPA, filter. Do not use a bagless vacuum, as dust will be released when the collection container is removed for emptying.
—Damp-wipe dusty surfaces and mop floors weekly, especially in homes with small children, who spend much of their time on the floor.
Alternatives
Choose fish, meats and dairy products that are low in fat, since the PBDEs accumulate in animal fat.
Look for TCO-approved computers, displays, keyboards and printers. TCO is a voluntary international certification and labeling standards program based in Sweden dealing with environmental and ergonomic issues related to computers and other products.
TCO-approved computers, displays, keyboards and printers contain very little PBDEs, as the standards strictly limit the allowable amount. The exception to the restriction on PBDE use is the circuit board, as there is no suitable alternative at this time.
For information on the standards and products that are TCO-approved, see TCO’s website. (There is a drop down menu to change the language of the site in the upper right corner.)
Furniture maker IKEA, auto manufacturer Volvo, and electronics manufacturers Intel, Philips, IBM, Dell, and Ericsson no longer use PBDEs in their products. Most Hewlett-Packard computer monitor housings are PBDE-free. Motorola, Panasonic, NEC, Hitachi, Sony, Samsung and Toshiba have all taken significant steps towards phasing out toxic flame retardants from their products.
Mattresses now made in the U.S. are unlikely to contain foams treated with PBDEs, according to industry experts. See Rest Easy on a Safe Bed.
Where possible, choose natural fiber (wool, cotton, hemp) carpet pads, bedding, cushions and upholstered furniture. Wool is naturally flame-retardant. Several companies make wool carpet padding, furniture cushions, and mattresses, though purchasing a mattress free of chemical flame retardants may require a doctor’s prescription.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Toxic Flame Retardants (PBDEs). Toxic-Free Legacy Coalition, February 2004.
ToxFAQs for Polybrominated Biphenyls and Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBBs AND PBDEs). Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, September 2002.
http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/tfacts68.html
Other government agencies
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
Division of Toxicology
1600 Clifton Road NE, Mailstop F-32
Atlanta, GA 30333
888-422-8737
PCBs are a group of nonflammable, stable, organochlorine compounds (a mixture that includes up to 209 related compounds). PCBs were once widely used as coolants and lubricants in flame retardants, hydraulic fluids, transformers, capacitors, and other electrical equipment, liquid seals, paint, varnish, inks and pesticides. The U.S. government banned the production of PCBs in 1977, but PCBs continue to be released into the environment from hazardous waste sites, illegal or improper dumping, and leaks from or burning of old electrical transformers, fluorescent tubes, and other PCB-containing equipment.
PCBs are considered persistent organic pollutants (POPs), which tend to remain the environment and animals for long periods of time and can travel long distances. PCBs have been detected in human tissue and breast milk throughout the world.
Children may be exposed to PCBs by eating contaminated fish or by coming into contact with soil or water contaminated near hazardous waste sites. PCBs cross the placenta to expose developing babies in the womb.
PCBs may be contaminated with polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) is Slightly Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) is Very Highly Toxic
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is likely to cause cancer. It is considered a Probable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Neurotoxin = Can harm brain and central nervous system
Suspected Endocrine Disruptor = May interfere with, mimic or block hormones
Development Toxicant = Can interfere with normal development of a fetus or child
Other
Acne, skin rashes, eye irritation, joint pain. Porphyria, a disorder caused by a change in the amount of nitrogen-containing substances in the blood, leading to abdominal pain, skin lesions, light sensitivity, anemia, and neurological changes.
Developmental effects have been observed in children born to women exposed to high levels of PCBs in the workplace or who consumed large amounts of PCB-contaminanted fish. These effects include decreased birth weight, decreased intelligence and abnormal effects on infant behavior. Some of these behaviors, such as problems with motor skills and a decrease in short-term memory, lasted for several years. Attention deficit disorders, hyperactivity, and behavioral problems may also be linked to PCB exposure.
Studies in adults exposed to large amounts of PCBs have found deficits on memory and verbal learning and impaired immune function.
Anemia; acne-like skin conditions (chloracne); liver, stomach, and thyroid gland injuries, including reduced thyroid-hormone levels (hypothyroidism).
A number of different cancers are linked to PCB exposure.
Reduction of sperm motility was associated with increasing PCB concentrations in semen in one study, although the study did not prove a cause-effect relationship.
How Exposures Occur
Food
Children can consume PCBs by eating contaminated fish and other animal foods. PCBs accumulate in fatty tissue of animals. The amount of PCBs in animal tissue typically increases as you move up the food chain. As a result, high-fat predatory fish, such as bluefish and Great Lakes salmon and lake trout, have high levels of PCB in their fat. Farmed salmon, which are fed a diet high in fatty fish oils, have been found to contain higher PCB concentrations than wild salmon. Meats, dairy products, and seafood (particularly coastal and freshwater fish as well as mussels, clams, crabs and lobsters) are of highest concern. See our Fish Toxins chart (PDF) for more information.
Breast Milk
PCBs have also been detected in human breast milk. However, the benefits for babies from breast feeding outweigh the risks of PCB exposure. Breastfed babies are healthier than those who are bottle-fed; they experience fewer allergies, respiratory illnesses, and skin problems. In its 1997 policy statement, Breastfeeding and the Use of Human Milk, the American Academy of Pediatrics highly recommends breast feeding for all infants for one year.
Drinking Water
PCBs were released into wastewater prior to the ban in 1977. However, PCB levels are very low in drinking water since most PCBs bind to soils along water ways, sediment at the bottom of rivers, and accumulated in animals. Disturbances from flooding and slow release of PCBs from these environmental storages has resulted in their continual presence in many water bodies.
Soil
PCBs are released from landfills as a result of the disposal of appliances, such as televisions and refrigerators, and fluorescent lighting fixtures that contained PCBs.
Indoor air
PCBs have been detected in indoor air. The source of indoor PCB emissions are electrical appliances and fluorescent lighting electrical components (ballasts) that still contain PCBs. In buildings that were constructed before 1977, another possible source is caulking used to seal joints between masonry units and around windows.
Significant Statistics
PCBs can accumulate in fish to levels up to more than a million times the concentration in the surrounding water.
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) Update: Impact on Fish Advisories. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water, September 1999.http://www.epa.gov/ost/fish/chemfacts.html
Over 74,000 pounds of PCBs were released into land and water between 1987 and 1993. The largest releases were in California, according to the EPA�s Toxic Chemicals Release Inventory.
National Primary Drinking Water Regulations, Consumer Factsheet on: Polychlorinated Biphenyls. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water, April 2001.http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/dwh/c-soc/pcbs.html
Between 1993 and 1998, there was a 112% increase in PCB fish consumption advisories, jumping from 319 to 679. PCB fish advisories are second only to those for mercury.
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) Update: Impact on Fish Advisories. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water, September 1999.http://www.epa.gov/ost/fish/chemfacts.html
Solutions
How to detect polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
Fish: Individual states establish fish consumption advisories depending on the detected levels of PCBs. Indiana, New York and Washington DC have issued statewide PCB advisories for freshwater lakes and rivers. Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New Hampshire, New York and Rhode Island have issued statewide PCB advisories for coastal marine waters. Other states and territories may have advisories for specific waterways. Your state health department can tell you if any fish consumption advisories for PCB contamination exist in your area, or you can check our State Fish Consumption Advisory Links.
Drinking Water: PCBs are regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act. This law requires that community water systems monitor PCB levels, and make public when levels exceed the set Maximum Contamination Level (MCL). The MCL for PCBs is 0.5 parts per billion.
Community water systems are required to produce annual consumer confidence reports and mail them to every water customer.
If your water source is a well, your water is not monitored for contaminants as is required for public water supplies by the Safe Drinking Water Act. Private testing of the water is necessary.
Even if your water comes from a community water system, contaminant levels can vary from house to house. You can have your water tested by sending samples to a certified laboratory.
You can search for water quality reports from your water provider, obtain information on well water testing and find a list of state-certified drinking water laboratories at the U.S. EPA’s Office of Water’s website or call the EPA’s Safe Drinking Water Hotline, 800-426-4791.
Fluorescent Lamp Ballasts: Only ballasts manufactured through 1979 contain PCBs. Ballasts manufactured after 1979 that do not contain PCBs are labeled “NO PCBs.” If a ballast is not labeled “NO PCBs,” assume it contains PCBs.
To find out whether PCBs have been released in your neighborhood, visit the Environmental Defense�s Scorecard for chemicals.
How to minimize exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
Fluorescent Bulbs: If the ballast,the portion of the lamp containing PCBs, is not leaking a clear or yellow fluid, you may dispose of the fluorescent lamp as you would other municipal solid waste. If the ballast is leaking, it must be disposed as other PCB wastes. Contact your regional U.S.EPA office listed above. For EPA-approved disposal companies, see the EPA listings.
Children should be warned about playing with old appliances, electrical equipment, or transformers, since they may contain PCBs. Children should also be discouraged from playing in the dirt near hazardous waste sites and in areas where there was a transformer fire.
Reduce dietary fat. Remove fat from meat as well as skin on chicken and fish, before cooking. Use cooking methods such as broiling, which allows fat to drip away from the food.
PCBs accumulate in the belly flap, gills, eyes, brain and internal organs of fish and shellfish (including the “tomalley ” in lobster and the “mustard ” in blue crab). PCB exposure can be reduced by removing these body parts, trimming fat, any darker meat along the top or center of the fillet, and skinning. Avoid sauces made from liquid fish drippings or cooking water, and avoid stews and soups that call for whole fish with internal organs intact. Opt for wild salmon instead of farmed “Atlantic” salmon, which contains higher PCB levels.
Alternatives
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
"How We Got Here-Part I: The History of Chlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)," Rachel's Environment & Health News, No. 327 (March 4, 1993).
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a group of over 100 different chemicals that are formed as byproducts of combustion (burning) of coal, oil, gas, garbage, tobacco, foods and other organic substances. Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) is the most toxic and best studied of the PAHs. Naphthalene is a type of PAH used in mothballs and some cleaners.
PAHs are usually found in smoke and soot. They are also found in coal tar pitch, creosote (used to preserve wood), asphalt, shale oil, vehicle exhaust, wood smoke, and cigarette smoke. PAHs can attach to other particles, including dust. Besides collecting in household dust, these particles can be carried in air, water and soil and onto food crops. Indoors, PAHs can also react with nitrates and form more toxic compounds.
Most people are exposed to some PAHs through the food they eat, especially foods that have been grilled, barbecued or smoked. Otherwise, children are most likely to be exposed to PAHs outdoors, especially in polluted or high traffic areas. Indoors, children experience high exposure to PAHs in homes where someone smokes tobacco, even if they are not directly exposed to the smoke, or where a fireplace or woodstove is used frequently or without proper venting.
Pregnant women exposed to PAHs, including benzo[a]pyrene, can pass them on to their developing babies through the placenta.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) is Not Available
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is likely to cause cancer. It is considered a Probable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Suspected Endocrine Disruptor = May interfere with, mimic or block hormones
Development Toxicant = Can interfere with normal development of a fetus or child
Reproductive Toxicant = Can harm reproductive system
Other
Long-term exposure to benzo[a]pyrene in humans has resulted in skin rashes, sensitivity to sunlight, eye irritation and cataracts.
Cancer. Epidemiological studies have found an increase in lung cancer rates in people exposed to coke oven emissions, roofing tar emissions and tobacco smoke; all of these compounds contain BaP and other polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. In test animals, BaP has caused respiratory tract tumors from inhalation and stomach tumors, leukemia, and lung tumors from ingesting BaP. Cancers of the larynx and the scrotum may also be associated with PAH exposure.
Reproductive effects. In test animals, BaP has resulted in decreased fertility and reduced incidence of pregnancy, and has damaged sperm and reproductive organs in males.
May damage the developing fetus. Fetal exposure to PAHs has been linked to the birth of babies that are small for their gestational age (SGA). Studies of women who smoke during pregnancy link PAH (along with carbon monoxide) to a 200-gram decrease in birth weight. Pregnant women who were exposed to heavy doses of PAHs near the World Trade Center on 9/11 and after similarly gave birth to smaller babies.
In test animals exposed during pregnancy, BaP has caused reduced viability of litters, decreased birth weight, and cancer and reduced fertility in offspring.
Short-term exposure to high levels of benzo[a]pyrene may cause red blood cell damage, leading to anemia, and suppressed immune system. In test animals, BaP has caused blood and liver damage when high doses are ingested, and immune system damage through contact with the skin.
How Exposures Occur
From Foods
Children can ingest traces of benzo[a]pyrene in smoked, grilled, barbecued or burned foods, as cooking food at high temperatures or charring or burning of foods increases the amount of BaP in such foods.
Foods grown in contaminated soil or air may also contain BaP. It has been detected in trace amounts in cereals, bread, vegetables, vegetable oils, margarines, roasted coffee, fruits, meats, milk, and processed or pickled foods.
Tobacco Smoke
Children can inhale benzo[a]pyrene when they are exposed to secondhand tobacco smoke. BaP particles from cigarette smoke can cling to household dust (see below).
Wood Smoke
Children can inhale benzo[a]pyrene in indoor and outdoor air when fireplaces or wood stoves are in use.
Outdoor Air Pollution
Children can inhale benzo[a]pyrene in outdoor air. Sources include:
- soot, smoke and dust from the burning of wood, coal, and agricultural waste
- manufacturing source emissions from refineries, coal, coke and coal tar processing, and heat and power generation sources
- incinerator emissions
- fumes from asphalt roads and roofing, coal, coal tar, and hazardous waste sites.
- exhaust fumes from motor vehicles and other gasoline and diesel engines
- forest fires and volcanic releases
During Pregnancy
PAHs can pass through the placenta of pregnant women to expose the fetus. Pregnant women who are exposed to PAHs through any of the exposure routes listed here risk exposing their babies.
House Dust and Soil
Small children can ingest BaP from normal hand-to-mouth behavior after crawling or playing on floors and carpets that contains contaminated dust. Dust can become contaminated especially in homes where smoking is permitted and/or where fireplaces, woodburning stoves and gas appliances are used frequently or without proper ventilation. BaP could also be tracked indoors on shoes. Outdoors, children can ingest soil contaminated with traces of BaP from the sources mentioned above under outdoor air pollution.
In Drinking Water
BaP has been detected in some water supplies. It is regulated by the U.S. Safe Drinking Water Act, which requires public water facilities to regular test water supplies and report high levels of this substance.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons primarily enter tap water by leaching from coal tar and asphalt linings in water storage tanks and distribution lines. It is possible, though rare, that children could be exposed to BaP from drinking water that has been contaminated on route to your home.
Skin Contact
Exposure to BaP and other PAHs may also occur through skin contact with products that contain PAHs, such as creosote-treated wood.
Significant Statistics
Each day, the average urban infant will ingest 110 nanograms of benzo[a]pyrene by ingesting house dust through typical hand-to-mouth behavior after crawling on floors and carpets. This amount is equal to what an infant would inhale by smoking three cigarettes.
Ninety-six percent of the benzo[a]pyrene released into the environment comes from coal refuse piles, outcrops, abandoned coal mines, coke manufacture, and residential external combustion of coal.
“Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons, 15 Listings.” Tenth Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program, December 2002.http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/roc/tenth/profiles/s150pah.pdf
Typically, levels of PAHs in indoor air are 2-5 times higher than in outdoor air. In smokers’ homes, PAH levels are 130-300% higher than outdoors.
The general population ingests 1-9 micrograms of PAHs per day through consumption of food, making food the primary route of exposure.
Solutions
How to detect polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
Benzo[a]pyrene is found in tobacco smoke and wood smoke, which can both be detected by their odor.
Otherwise, except for professional testing, there is no way for us to detect how much benzo[a]pyrene is entering our homes.
Benzo[a]pyrene is regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act. This law requires that community water systems monitor benzo[a]pyrene levels, and make public when levels exceed the set Maximum Contamination Level (MCL). The MCL for benzo[a]pyrene has been set at 0.2 parts per billion.
Community water systems are required to produce annual consumer confidence reports and mail them to every water customer.
If your water source is a well, your water is not monitored for contaminants as is required for public water supplies by the Safe Drinking Water Act. Private testing of the water is necessary.
Even if your water comes from a community water system, contaminant levels can vary from house to house. You can have your water tested by sending samples to a certified laboratory.
You can search for water quality reports from your water provider, obtain information on well water testing and find a list of state-certified drinking water laboratories at the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Office of Water website or call the EPA’s Safe Drinking Water Hotline, 800-426-4791.
Install and properly maintain a carbon monoxide monitor. Carbon monoxide and PAHs are simultaneously emitted by combustion appliances such as furnaces and gas stoves.
How to minimize exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
Minimize your children�s exposure to secondhand tobacco smoke. If you live with children, do not smoke inside your home or permit others to do so. Any smoking should be done outdoors. Do not smoke where children, particularly infants and toddlers, tend to play, especially in day care centers, nurseries, or other settings where they spend long hours.
Do not smoke in the car: The high concentration of smoke in a small, closed compartment substantially increases the exposure to other passengers. If smoking in the home cannot be avoided, open windows and increase ventilation with box or exhaust fans.
Reduce consumption of smoked, barbecued, or charcoal-grilled foods.
Don�t leave a car or lawnmower engine running in a shed or garage or in other enclosed spaces. Even if the garage door to the outside is open, fumes can build up very quickly in the garage and living area of your home. Also, don�t operate gasoline-powered appliances, engines or tools (mowers, weed trimmers, snow blowers, chain saws, small engines or generators) in enclosed or partly-enclosed spaces.
Alternatives
Fresh or lightly-cooked foods should contain lower levels of BaP and other PAHs than grilled, barbecued or smoked foods.
Heating systems powered by electricity and electrical appliances (as opposed to gas) don’t release BaP and other combustion pollutants into indoor air. However, some power plants release combustion byproducts like PAHs into the environment. Choose clean and environmental energy sources, if you have a choice.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Other government agencies
Agency of Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
Division of Toxicology
1600 Clifton Road E-29
Atlanta, GA 30333
800-447-1544, 888-422-8737
Radon is a naturally occurring radioactive gas, derived from uranium, that is found in soil, water and rocks. Odorless, tasteless and colorless, radon gas decays over time into radioactive particles, which can be inhaled and trapped in the lungs.
Radon levels are generally highest in basements, where the gas seeps in from soil through cracks or pores in a home’s foundation, floor drains, sump pumps, joints and hollow-block walls. Radon has been found in homes all over the country.
Radon is the second leading cause of lung cancer after smoking. Children may be more sensitive to radon because they breathe faster than adults and due to their rapidly dividing cells, although some evidence shows that children exposed to radon may not have a higher risk of lung cancer. Exposure to both radon and tobacco smoke greatly increases the risk of lung cancer.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, radon is Not Available
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, radon is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), radon is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
Other
Lung cancer, lung tissue damage.
Stomach cancer (from drinking radon-contaminated water).
How Exposures Occur
Building Materials
Concrete, bricks, gypsum board (if mixed with talc and mica), granite, and slate sometimes contain radon that may be released into the home, but such cases are rare and do not constitute a great health risk.
From the Air
Radon can be inhaled when indoor air is contaminated with radon that enters the home from radon-containing rocks and soil through joints, cracks, utility access points, and earthen foundations.
Radon levels in a home can fluctuate from day to day, depending on the level of radon in the soil, type of soil, airflow through soil, openings to buildings, ventilation, and precipitation (indoor radon is increased when the ground surface is saturated).
Water
Water from privately owned wells can contain radon gas, particularly in homes with high levels of radon in the air. Radon contamination can also be a problem in communities that rely on groundwater for their water supply. Exposure from water occurs when gas is released from the water during showers and other household uses and inhaled. Most homes with public water sources are not at risk. Research suggests that swallowing water may pose a health risk, but this is much lower than breathing contaminated air.
Significant Statistics
High indoor radon levels (4 picocuries/liter or more) are found in nearly one out of every 15 homes.
Radon is estimated to cause 15,000 to 22,000 deaths per year.
A study in New York State showed that, while 82% of 1,209 residents had heard of radon, only 21% were knowledgeable about radon. Only 15% of those aware of radon had their homes tested.
Radon in drinking water causes about 168 cancer deaths per year, 89 percent from lung cancer caused by breathing radon released from water, and 11 percent from stomach cancer caused by drinking water contaminated with radon.
Do-it-Yourself Tests: Home testing kits are affordable and easy to use. There are two types of test: short-term (2 to 90 days) and long-term (over 90 days). Radon levels tend to vary from day to day and season to season, so a long-term test better indicates your year-round average. In either case,the tests are conducted similarly, requiring that the test kit be left undisturbed on the lowest livable floor of the house, such as the basement,for the recommended duration of time. The test kits must be sent to a laboratory for analysis. Nearby buildings may contain varying amounts of radon so each building should be tested individually.
The U.S.Environmental Protection Agency’s Radon website provides explanations of the various types of tests. Test kits are available at most hardware stores, and others can be found at state and local health departments, from The National Safety Council, or mail-order sources. Look for a test kit from a company that is state-certified or EPA-listed.
Professional Tests: Professionals may also be hired to radon tests. The EPA recommends contacting one of your state radon and air quality professionals. Both the National Radon Safety Board and the National Environmental Health Association list certified radon measurement professionals.
To determine if your home is located where radon is a common problem, download the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Radon Zone map.
How to minimize exposure to radon
Methods:There are several ways to reduce radon inside the home, designed either to prevent radon entry into the house, or removing the radon once it has entered the home.
Ventilation: Reduce the amount of radon build-up that occurs in closed spaces (including crawl spaces under the house) by increasing the circulation of fresh air. Open windows and vents and use fans.
Sealing: By caulking cracks and filling gaps in in basement walls, floors and crawl spaces, radon can be blocked from entering the home. However, since it is very difficult to find all the entry points and because most homes cannot be made perfectly air-tight, this method is not sufficient when radon levels are high.
Diversion: This method involves physically channeling radon contaminated air outside. There are several ways to do this, such as with an exhaust fan, or through depressurization (see below).
Depressurization: This prevents the radon gas from being sucked into the house and can even be used to push the radon gas out through holes in the foundation. There are several methods. Sub-Slab Depressurization pulls radon-laden air from beneath the foundation and vents it outside the home. The system requires the use of a fan and a pipe inserted through the foundation and run to a point outside the shell of the house.
Sub-Membrane Depressurization requires the use of a plastic barrier over the soil as a collection cover.
Blockwall Depressurization uses a fan and ducts to draw suction on the hollow interior cavities of a concrete block wall.
Professional Abatement: If short-term radon test results show that levels are higher than 4 picocuries/liter, conduct a follow-up test to confirm the results. If either the long-term follow-up test or the average of the first 2 short-term tests is 4 pcI/l or more, the home needs to be fixed,and a radon professional should be contracted. Hire contractors who are certified by either the National Radon Safety Board and the National Environmental Health Association and your state. Remember to retest after work has been completed.
Make Your Home a Smoke-Free Zone: The risk of lung cancer from radon exposure is increased for smokers and those exposed to secondhand smoke.
When building a new home or building, use radon-resistant construction techniques. For more information, see publications listed below.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
A Citizen’s Guide To Radon: The Guide to Protecting Yourself and Your Family From Radon. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Indoor Environments Division, September 1992.
http://www.epa.gov/iaq/radon/pubs/citguide.html
Home Buyer’s And Seller’s Guide To Radon. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office Of Air and Radiation, July 2000.
http://www.epa.gov/iaq/radon/pubs/hmbyguid.html
Model Standards and Techniques For Control of Radon in New Residential Buildings. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office Of Air and Radiation, March 1994.
1121 Spring Lake Drive
Itasca, IL 60143-3201
National Radon Hotline: 800-767-7236
National Radon Helpline: 800-557-2366
National Radon Fix-It Line: 800-644-6999
Resmethrin is a synthetically produced pesticide in the pyrethroid family, used for control of flying and crawling insects in homes, greenhouses, indoor landscapes, mushroom houses, industrial sites, stored product insects and for mosquito control. It is also used for fabric protection, pet sprays and shampoos, and applied to horses or in horse stables.
Resmethrin is a synthetic derivative of naturally occurring pyrethrins, derived from pyrethrum, an extract from the flowers of chrysanthemum. It is not a natural or “organic” alternative to pesticides. Though it is considered to have very low toxicity to most people and pets, it can cause some health effects (see Possible Health Effects, below). Care should be taken to keep pregnant woman and infants from being exposed.
Resmethrin is often used in aerosol formulations. Resmethrin has been used in the U.S. East Coast fight against mosquitoes potentially carrying the West Nile Virus.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, resmethrin is Not Available
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, resmethrin is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), resmethrin is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical may cause cancer. It is considered a Possible Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Allergen
Neurotoxin = Can harm brain and central nervous system
Asthma Trigger
Development Toxicant = Can interfere with normal development of a fetus or child
Other
Considered to have very low toxicity to most people, dogs, cats and other mammals, but may cause skin and eye irritation, such as itching, burning, in some people.
Neurological effects, including dizziness, incoordination, headache, twitching, loss of bladder control, seizures, numbness, tingling sensations. These symptoms are unlikely at the relatively low doses generally used.
Effects on the liver or thyroid have been noted in animal studies.
Respiratory effects and allergy symptoms, including stuffy or runny nose, scratchy throat, especially for individuals suffering from allergies.
Developmental toxicity: Resmethrin decreased the survival and weight of rat pups born to exposed female rats in animal studies and is listed by the State of California as known to cause developmental toxicity.
How Exposures Occur
During and Immediately After Spraying Outdoors
Resmethrin is used in residential neighborhoods for eliminating mosquitoes that may carry the West Nile Virus. Children may be exposed if they remain outdoors during application or if they touch anything outdoors immediately after spraying.
During or Immediately After Spraying Indoors
Children may inhale resmethrin when it is sprayed indoors, or they may touch and subsequently ingest resmethrin that has fallen on objects within the home. Resmethrin may also enter homes through open windows.
Pet Sprays or Shampoos
Children may be exposed to resmethrin if they play with pets immediately after the application of flea and tick shampoos and sprays.
Solutions
How to detect resmethrin
Read labels to determine if resmethrin is in products in your home or check PAN’s Pesticide Database for a list of brands and products containing this pesticide. If you hire a professional exterminator, ask for safety information,such as a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS), for the products used.
Resmethrin breaks down into a smelly byproduct, phenylacetic acid, which binds strongly to textiles and dissipates slowly, smelling of urine.
How to minimize exposure to resmethrin
Avoid Exposure: Ask your neighbors for notification when they spray permethrin and other pesticides outdoors. Bring in pets, laundry, toys, and other outdoor equipment.
-Cover outdoor tables and ornamental fish ponds.
-Remain inside while spraying takes place, close windows and doors and turn off your air conditioning (or set it to circulate indoor air) before spraying begins.
-Keep children inside at least one hour after spraying.
-Avoid direct contact with surfaces that are still wet from pesticide spraying.
Wash skin and clothing exposed to resmethrin with soap and water.
Avoid Spraying: If for any reason a person wishes their property to be excluded from mosquito spraying, contact your local Town Clerk, County Executive and your County Legislator for proper procedures. Resmethrin is a Restricted Use Pesticide and should only be applied by certified personnel.
Alternatives
Choose least-toxic pest control methods, such as Integrated Pest Management, for your home garden, lawn and shrubs. Prevent insects from entry into homes: Repair or install window and door screens; remove standing water outdoors (in roof gutters, old tires, buckets and wading pools) and repair leaky plumbing; seal trash containers.
Instead of using insect repellents containing resmethrin, wear protective clothing outdoors, with long sleeves and pant legs. Inspect for ticks after outdoor activities. In regions where Lyme disease and West Nile virus have been identified, use of an insect repellent may be necessary. Spray clothing rather than skin. Inspect for ticks when returning indoors.
Reduce mosquito breeding habitats by removing standing pools of water such as leaning roof gutters, old tires, buckets, and regularly changing the water in wading pools. Repair or install window and door screens to keep mosquitoes from getting into your home.
For Your Information: Synthetic Pyrethroids for Mosquito Control. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Prevention Pesticides, and Toxic Substances, April 17, 2002.
OVERKILL: Why Pesticide Spraying for West Nile Virus May Cause More Harm Than Good. Toxics Action Center and Maine Environmental Policy Institute, July 2001
http://www.meepi.org/wnv/mass.htm
Other government agencies
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Pesticide Programs (OPP)
Ariel Rios Building
1200 Pennsylvania Ave, NW
WAshington DC 20460
703-305-5017
Sodium laureth sulfate (SLES) is a detergent widely used in shampoos and other sudsing personal care products. SLES may be irritating to eyes and skin. Otherwise, it is considered for safe. SLES can become contaminated with 1,4-dioxane, which the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency considers to be a probable carcinogen. However, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration encourages manufacturers to strip out this contaminant. A somewhat stronger cousin of sodium laureth sulfate is sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS). The Cosmetic, Toiletry, and Fragrance Association discourages use of sodium lauryl sulfate in products intended for prolonged use, unless in low concentrations. Information has circulated on the Internet and elsewhere that shampoos and other products containing SLS or SLES cause cancer. However, there is no evidence that either ingredient is carcinogenic. Since these ingredients can cause skin and eye irration, it is prudent to discontinue use if these symptoms appear. Irritants may permit the penetration of other, more dangerous chemicals.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, sodium laureth sulfate is Not Available
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, sodium laureth sulfate is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), sodium laureth sulfate is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical may cause cancer. It is considered a Possible Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Other
Skin and eye irritation.
How Exposures Occur
Through the skin
Sodium laureth sulfate and/or 1,4-dioxane may be absorbed through the scalp and skin from shampoos, bath and shower gels, and other personal care products.
Solutions
How to detect sodium laureth sulfate
Check shampoo and other labels for sodium laureth sulfate. A search for sodium laureth sulfate on the National Library of Medicine’s Household Products Database will show a list of products that contain it.
You can search for products containing sodium laureth sulfate on Environmental Working Group’s Skin Deep Searchable Product Guide website.
How to minimize exposure to sodium laureth sulfate
Alternatives
Natural plant- and mineral-based personal care products are sold in natural foods stores. However, some may also contain sodium laureth sulfate, so read labels before purchasing.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Other government agencies
U.S. Food and Drug Administration
Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition
5600 Fishers Lane
Rockville, MD 20857-0001
888-INFO-FDA (888-463-6332)
Styrene is a widely used solvent and volatile organic compound (VOC). Styrene is used in the manufacture of plastics, synthetic rubber, resins, insulators, coatings, and paints, and therefore a possible industrial pollutant of water, air and soil. Because it is a component of car exhaust, styrene is a major contributor to photochemical smog and air pollution.
Styrene is found in cigarette smoke, and in a number of household and building products, including foam cups and food containers, insulation, fiberglass, pipes, luggage, floor waxes and polishes, paints, varnishes, adhesives (epoxy resin in particular), putty, metal cleaners, and carpet backing.
Styrene vaporizes easily, emitting a somewhat floral scent. Many of the above products may release styrene during and after opening and using, making it a likely indoor air pollutant. Children may breathe styrene where indoor or outdoor air quality is low and ingest residues of styrene in food packaged or heated in foam.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, styrene is Not Available
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, styrene is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), styrene is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
Neurotoxin = Can harm brain and central nervous system
Suspected Endocrine Disruptor = May interfere with, mimic or block hormones
Other
If inhaled at high concentrations, can cause nervous system effects such as depression, concentration problems, muscle weakness, fatigue, and nausea. Chronic occupational exposures have caused eye problems.
Eye, nose, and throat irritation if inhaled.
Chromosomal damage.
In test animals, has caused damage to the liver, kidneys, brain, and lungs when ingested.
How Exposures Occur
Cigarette Smoke
Children can inhale styrene from secondhand cigarette smoke.
Drinking Water
Styrene can leach into groundwater and contaminate drinking water supplies when it’s released into the environment. Styrene is regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act, which requires regular testing for styrene in public water supplies.
Food Flavoring
Food processing companies use small amounts of styrene as a flavoring agent in foods, including some kid favorites — ice cream and candy.
Food Packaged in Polystyrene Foam or Plastic
Children can ingest small amounts of styrene from foods contained in Styrofoam and polystyrene plastic, which may leach styrene into foods and drinks contained within, particularly into those that are hot or high-fat, or contain alcohol.
Indoor Air
Styrene fumes vaporize easily from some building materials and some consumer products, such as floor waxes and polishes, paints, varnishes, adhesives (epoxy resin in particular), and metal cleaners. Children may be exposed at any time, but especially just after such products have been used, applied or installed.
Outdoor Air
Children can inhale styrene fumes from automobile exhaust or from industrial emissions, if they reside near manufacturing facilities.
Significant Statistics
Styrene was detected in 100% of people studied in a 1982 survey of human fat tissue conducted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
In 1993, over 10 billion pounds of styrene were produced in the U.S.
Styrene Fact Sheet: Support Document (CAS No.100-42-5). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics, November 1994.http://www.epa.gov/opptintr/chemfact/styre-sd.txt
Styrene is one of the most active generators of smog in the atmosphere.
U.S. industrial facilities released over 56 million pounds of styrene into the environment, primarily into the air, in 1998, according to the U.S. EPA’s Toxic Release Inventory.
Plastic or foam containers made of polystyrene can be identified by the #6 or PS, usually located inside the triangle on the bottom of containers.
Before purchasing or using, read labels or request a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for all paints, adhesives, stains, and other products that may contain harsh solvents such as styrene. Avoid products labeled “Poison” (extremely toxic) or “Danger,” (very toxic, flammable, or corrosive), in particular.
Some MSDS are available on the internet at Vermont Safety Information Resources Inc.
Styrene is regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act. This law requires that community water systems monitor styrene levels, and make public when levels exceed the set Maximum Contamination Level (MCL). The MCL for styrene has also been set at 0.1 parts per million of water.
Community water systems are required to produce annual consumer confidence reports and mail them to every water customer.
If your water source is a well, your water is not monitored for contaminants as is required for public water supplies by the Safe Drinking Water Act. Private testing of the water is necessary.
Even if your water comes from a community water system, contaminant levels can vary from house to house. You can have your water tested by sending samples to a certified laboratory.
You can search for water quality reports from your water provider, obtain information on well water testing and find a list of state-certified drinking water laboratories at the U.S. EPA’s Office of Water’s website or call the EPA’s Safe Drinking Water Hotline, 800-426-4791.
How to minimize exposure to styrene
Reduce your children’s exposure to secondhand cigarette smoke.
Avoid foods packaged or served is polystyrene foam or polystyrene plastic, denoted by a #6 or PS in the triangle on the bottom. In its rigid, non-foam form, PS is often used to make clear clam-shell deli containers, clear plastic cups, and white or colored plastic forks, knives, and spoons. Hot, fatty or foods containing alcohol may be particularly susceptible to styrene leaching from packaging.
Avoid heating foods or drinks in polystyrene foam containers or cups in the microwave. Heat increases the likelihood of leaching.
Always ventilate well when using paints, adhesives, varnishes and cleaners that may contain solvents like styrene. Allow carpets and their backings, insulation and other building materials to release fumes by opening them up (unrolling carpets) in a ventilated garage or unused room for at least a few days before installing.
Alternatives
Choose least toxic and low-or no-VOC cleaning products, paints, sealants, paint thinners, adhesives,etc.
Use glass, ceramic or stainless steel containers for food storage. Choose foods and drinks packaged in paper, glass, metal cans or cardboard over those in polystyrene foam or plastic.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Montague, Peter. “Solvents:All-Purpose Poisons,” Rachel’s Environment and Health News, (April 22, 1999).
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a colorless, smelly gas in the sulfur oxide family of gases. Sulfur dioxide is formed when sulfur-containing fuels, such as coal and oil, are burned. The primary sources of SO2 emissions are power plants, refineries and copper smelting facilities. Sulfur dioxide is also found in the exhause of diesel fuel and gasoline. Volcanoes and decaying organic matter also produce SO2. However, man-made emissions of SO2 have been the cause of some of the worst air pollution episodes in the last century.
SO2 is one of the six major air pollutants in the U.S. Sulfur dioxide is a potent asthma trigger and can cause other respiratory health effects. In the atmosphere, sulfur dioxide can form dangerous sulfates, which can be breathed deep into the lungs, and sulfuric acid, the major acidic component of
acid rain. Acid rain can harm fish, damage forests and plants,and erode buildings.
Sulfur dioxide is also used to preserve foods. It is one of a group of sulfiting agents, used in wine, on many dried fruits and in numerous other foods. Asthmatics may be sensitive to sulfiting agents found in food.
Children living in urban areas are more likely to be exposed to air-borne sulfur dioxide and its byproducts. But any child living in a home where gas appliances are used may also be exposed. Because children breathe in more air for their body weight than adults do, children generally are more vulnerable to the effects of SO2 than adults.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, sulfur dioxide is Not Available
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, sulfur dioxide is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), sulfur dioxide is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is considered an Unclassifiable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Allergen
Asthma Trigger
Other
Respiratory (breathing) effects. Breathing high levels of sulfur dioxide can constrict airways, causing wheezing, chest tightness, coughing, and breathing problems. This can aggravate existing respiratory diseases, such as bronchitis, asthma, or emphysema, and trigger asthma attacks. Chronic exposure may cause bronchitis. Sulfur dioxide exposure may also impair the respiratory system’s defenses against foreign particles and bacteria. Exposure to extremely high concentrations of SO2 can cause severe shortness of breath and pulmonary edema, a medical emergency characterized by fluid building up in the lungs.
Those most sensitive to sulfur dioxide exposure are children with asthma, the elderly, and individuals with asthma, cardiovascular or chronic lung disease (bronchitis, emphysema), or who are mouth-breathing, particularly when exercising. Exposure to SO2 while exercising can increase the likelihood of airway constriction. Possible effects of long-term exposure to SO2 during childhood are increased respiratory illness, wheezing fits, and respiratory-related
emergency room visits. Long-term exposure to SO2 can change a child’s ability to breathe deeply.
Low concentrations of sulfur dioxide in outdoor air can irritate the eyes, nose, throat, and respiratory tract, causing coughing and shortness of breath. Long-term exposure to low concentrations can cause headache, nausea, dizziness, and temporary loss of smell.
Breathing SO2 in polluted outdoor air may heighten sensitivities to other allergens, particularly in asthmatics.
Cancer. Inhaling sulfur dioxide has caused lung tumors in test animals. Some, but not all, studies of workers exposed to high levels of sulfur dioxide have found increased risk for lung, stomach and brain cancer.
Several studies have found higher death rates on days with elevated SO2 levels in outdoor air.
Some studies have found that exposure to increased SO2 levels from outdoor air pollution during pregnancy may be associated with an increased risk for low birth weight and premature birth. Long term exposure may decrease fertility in males and females.
How Exposures Occur
Industrial Pollution
Children can inhale sulfur dioxide from polluted
outdoor air, particularly if they live near industrial facilities that burn coal or oil, such as power plants and refineries, or near copper smelting plants, sulfuric acid manufacturers, fertilizer factories, paper pulp factories, or hazardous waste sites contaminated with sulfur dioxide. Because it increases breathing rates, exercising may increase the amount of sulfur dioxide entering the lungs if air pollution levels are high.
Vehicle Exhaust
Children can inhale sulfur dioxide from truck and car exhaust, especially in urban areas and near busy streets and highways. Diesel fuel, and to a lesser extent gasoline, contain sulfur and contribute to sulfur dioxide in the air. Recent studies show that diesel school buses is a source of exposure to school children.
Combustion Appliance
Children can inhale sulfur dioxide in homes
where fuel-burning appliances, including gas stoves, gas space heaters, kerosene heaters, furnaces, and wood stoves are used, especially if they are in disrepair, used improperly or without proper ventilation.
In Food
Children may ingest sulfur dioxide in foods preserved with it. Sulfur dioxide and five of its sulfite relatives are approved for use as preservatives in foods such as dried fruits (except prunes and black raisins), canned fruits and
vegetables, applesauce, wines, vinegar, pickled foods, instant potatoes and dried vegetables. Sulfur dioxide can also be applied to table grapes as a post-harvest fungicide. In sensitive individuals (particularly asthmatics), ingestion of sulfur dioxide and sulfites in food can cause asthma attacks, skin rashes and upset stomach.
Significant Statistics
In 1994, electricity generation was responsible for 70 percent of sulfur dioxide emissions. Of the top 50 individual sources of sulfur dioxide emissions in the U.S., all are electric power plants.
Nationally, average SO2 concentrations in outdoor air have decreased by 50% from 1981 to 2000, and by
37% over the more recent 10-year period of 1991–2000. SO2 emissions decreased 31% in 1981-2000 and
24% in 1991-2000. Reductions in SO2 concentrations and emissions since 1994 are largely due to controls implemented under the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Acid Rain Program, initiated in 1995.
National Air Quality Status and Trends 2000: Sulfur Dioxide. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, 2000.http://www.epa.gov/oar/aqtrnd00/sulfur.html
Solutions
How to detect sulfur dioxide
Pay attention to local air pollution advisories and news bulletins, which alert citizens when levels of SO2 and other pollutants are elevated. While levels of sulfur dioxide in the air are typically highest during the winter months, human exposure to sulfur dioxide has been shown to be greatest during the summer months, when people enjoy being outdoors in
warm weather and are more likely to leave household windows open.
To find out the highest sources of sulfur dioxide pollution in your community, and how your region ranks nationwide for sulfur dioxide pollution, go to Environmental Defense Chemical Scorecard.
You can’t tell if sulfites are on foods by looking at them. Read food labels, which are required to list the use of sulfites. Look for sodium sulfite, sodium bisulfite, potassium bisulfite, potassium metabisulfite, sodium metabisulfite and sulfur dioxide in ingredient listings.
Sulfites may be used on salad bar and other buffets in delis and restaurants.
How to minimize exposure to sulfur dioxide
Children should be kept from doing moderate to strenuous exercise outdoors when air pollution levels are high. Children should also avoid exercising on playing fields near
highways or other busy roads.
Children with asthma or other respiratory difficulties should stay indoors and limit outdoor activities during local air pollution advisories, when high levels of sulfur dioxide may be present in the air.
Asthmatics should avoid foods preserved with sulfur dioxide or sulfites as a precaution against possible asthma attacks or allergic reactions.
Always operate combustion appliances according to manufacturer specifications. Use the proper fuel in
kerosene space heaters and never leave space heaters unattended. Choose properly sized wood stoves that are certified to meet EPA emission standards, and be sure doors on wood stoves fit tightly. Consider purchasing a vented space heater when replacing un-vented heaters.
Keep gas appliances properly maintained and in repair. Have gas appliances and furnaces inspected, cleaned and tuned at least once a year. Repair leaks promptly. In some areas, local gas companies perform this service.
When appliances are kept in good working condition, they produce few combustion pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide.
Make sure there is adequate ventilation when using combustion appliances.
-Use an exhaust fan vented to outdoors every time you use a gas stove. The exhaust fan should be located above the stove. If you do not have an exhaust fan over your gas stove, always open a window while cooking.
-Open flues when fireplaces are in use.
-Never leave a car or lawnmower engine running in a garage, shed or other enclosed spaces. Even if the garage door to the outside is open, fumes can build up very quickly in the garage and living area of your home. Don’t use gasoline-powered appliances, engines or tools (mowers, weed trimmers, snow blowers, chain saws, small engines or generators) in
enclosed or partly-enclosed spaces.
Alternatives
Using ovens and heating systems powered by electricity instead of fuels will reduce nitrogen dioxide emissions in the home; however,electric ovens are not as energy-efficient
as gas ovens. If you decide on gas appliances, choose appliances that vent their fumes to the outdoor whenever possible.
Use your car less. Take public transportation, walk, or ride a bicycle.
Fresh fruits and vegetables and organic grapes are not preserved with sulfur dioxide. Look for unsulphured dried fruits and vegetables.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Sulfur Dioxide Fact Sheet. Idaho Department of Health and Welfare, January 2001.
What You Should Know About Combustion Appliances and Indoor Air Pollution. U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and The American Lung Association, Updated March 15, 1999.
http://www.epa.gov/iaq/pubs/combust.html
Other government agencies
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency/Office of Air and Radiation
Ariel Rios Building
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Washington DC 20460
talcum powder, baby powder, soapstone, French chalk, magnesium silicate
Description
A naturally occurring mineral that is crushed into powder for cosmetic grade talcum powder for both infants and adults. It has many other uses, including as a filler in soap, paint, and pills.
Talcum powders sometimes also contain boric acid, which can irritate the lungs, skin and eyes, and affect the gastrointestinal tract.
Talc can naturally occur with, and therefore be contaminated with, asbestos fibers, a known human carcinogen. Talc for home use is required to be asbestos-free, although there is no enforcement by government to assure that cosmetic grade talc does not contain asbestos fibers. The cosmetics industry claims that testing is performed regularly to ensure that talc used for baby and body powders does not contain asbestos, but that is not always true.
Talc can be acutely dangerous to an infant when the container tips over in a child’s face. The powder can suffocate a child, and may result in death. The same can be true of other baby powders.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, talc is Not Available
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, talc is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), talc is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is considered an Unclassifiable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Other
Talc particles may irritate respiratory passages when inhaled, and can cause fibrosis in the lungs. Longterm exposures such as those in occupational settings can cause pneumoconiosis (a chronic respiratory disease) and thickening or buildup of plaque or fluids in the membranes surrounding the lungs and chest cavity.
Talc can cause dryness and irritation when applied to skin, and may cause inflammation if applied to eyes or open cuts or wounds.
Long-term application of talc to the genital area may increase the risk of ovarian cancer in women.
Talc (non-asbestiform) caused lung and adrenal gland tumors in laboratory tests on rats but there is no evidence that it causes cancer in mice.
How Exposures Occur
Contact in Vulnerable Areas
Talc can enter the female reproductive tract and collect in ovaries when applied to the groin area or to diaphragms as a powder, or when products containing talc, such as feminine hygiene sprays and sanitary napkins (particularly the scented or deoderant type), are used.
Inhalation
Children can breath talc into the lungs when talc-containing baby powder, body powder and cosmetic powders are dusted on their skin.
Read labels of products designed to be used in the genital area, especially those labeled as scented or deodorizing. Baby powders, sprays and powdery, non-liquid cosmetics may also contain talc. Avoid powders containing boric acid.
How to minimize exposure to talc
Alternatives
For diaper rashes, ointments and creams are less likely to dry or chafe skin, and they do not pose an inhalation hazard. If you still prefer to use powders, cornstarch or other non-talc powders are a preferable alternative. When you use any powder on or near children, try to minimize the amount of dust that flies into the air.
Avoid any baby powder containing talc. Women should minimize use of sanitary napkins and feminine hygiene sprays containing talc.
Keep powders away from children. When changing diapers, make sure the powder is far enough away that a child cannot accidently knock the powder over, which could create a major dust cloud or could directly fall over baby’s mouth or nose.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Steele, M.D., Robert. Is Talcum Powder Safe for Babies? ParentsPlace.com, Health Questions and Answers.
Bleifuss, Joel. “Take a Powder,” In These Times (March 3, 1997).
http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/25/powder.html
Schneider, Andrew, and Carol Smith. “Old Dispute Rekindled Over Content of Mine's Talc: A Contentious, 30-year Fight With Experts,” Seattle Post-Intelligencer (May 30, 2000).
Toluene is a sweet-smelling, industrial solvent and a volatile organic compound (VOC). Toluene is used in consumer products such as adhesives, nail polish, cosmetics, rubber cement, paints, paint thinners, lacquers, stain removers, dyes and inks. It is also found in gasoline, car exhaust, and cigarette smoke. These are the most likely sources of exposure to toluene for children.
Toluene is produced by petroleum refining and as a byproduct of styrene manufacturing. It is used to manufacture benzene and urethane. Emissions of toluene where people live could occur as a result of these industrial activities.
Toluene also occurs naturally in crude oil and the tolu tree.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, toluene is Not Available
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, toluene is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), toluene is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is considered an Unclassifiable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Neurotoxin = Can harm brain and central nervous system
Development Toxicant = Can interfere with normal development of a fetus or child
Other
If inhaled, may depress the central nervous system, causing lightheadedness, headaches, euphoria, confusion, dizziness, drowsiness, memory loss, and, at higher concentrations, unconsciousness or death.
Eye, skin, and respiratory irritation, causing coughing; dry, cracked skin and skin rash/dermatitis.
Kidney and liver damage. Hearing loss. Irregular heartbeat.
Exposure to high levels during pregnancy can damage fetal development, possibly causing impaired mental functions, attention deficits, retarded growth, fetal solvent syndrome (with symptoms resembling fetal alcohol syndrome), and birth defects, including facial and limb abnormalities. These effects were noted in the infants of women who were chronic paint sniffers during pregnancy.
Some studies found higher rates of spontaneous abortion and miscarriage in women occupationally exposed to toluene or in wives of men occupationally exposed to it. However, the subjects of these studies may have been exposed to other solvents or there were other problems with the studies, making the results less than conclusive.
Inhalation over a long period of time can cause sore throats, fatigue, sleep problems, loss of appetite, nausea, weakness, dizziness, headaches. Impairment in reactions time, spread of perception, loss of hearing, memory and concentration problems and alteration in learned behaviors.
Permanent brain damage can also result from prolonged exposure, impairing speech, vision and hearing, and causing loss of muscle control, memory, and balance. These neurological effects are apparent in chronic solvent abusers. Some of these effects have also been noted in occupationally exposed individuals.
How Exposures Occur
Consumer Products
Children can inhale toluene released by some paints, paint thinners, fingernail polishes, perfumes, lacquers, rubber cement, stain removers, fabric dyes, inks and adhesives when they are used inside the house, especially without adequate ventilation.
Secondhand Cigarette Smoke
Children can inhale small amounts of toluene from secondhand cigarette smoke.
Automobile Exhaust and Gasoline
Toluene can be emitted in car, truck, and airplane exhaust, as well as gasoline fumes. Children may be exposed to toluene fumes if they live near busy highways and streets, or spend a lot of time near or in gas stations.
Outdoor Air
Children living near industrial facilities that release toluene or hazardous waste disposal sites could inhale traces of toluene.
Drinking Water
Toluene may contaminate drinking water.
Significant Statistics
In a test of human exposures, toluene was detected in the blood of every person tested (250), and in the fat tissue of 91% of people tested.
Read labels before purchasing cleaners, paints and paint removers, aerosol sprays, adhesives and other household products that may contain solvents. A search for toluene in the National Library of Medicine’s Household Products Database will show a list of brands that contain it.
In Drinking Water: Toluene is regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act. This law requires that community water systems monitor toluene levels, and make public when levels exceed the set Maximum Contamination Level (MCL). The MCL for toluene has also been set at 1 part toluene per million parts of water.
Community water systems are required to produce annual consumer confidence reports and mail them to every water customer.
If your water source is a well, your water is not monitored for contaminants as is required for public water supplies by the Safe Drinking Water Act. Private testing of the water is necessary.
Even if your water comes from a community water system, contaminant levels can vary from house to house. You can have your water tested by sending samples to a certified laboratory.
You can search for water quality reports from your water provider, obtain information on well water testing and find a list of state-certified drinking water laboratories at the U.S. EPA’s Office of Water’s website, or call the EPA’s Safe Drinking Water Hotline, 800-426-4791.
How to minimize exposure to toluene
Use products containing solvents, such as nail polish, rubber cement, stain removers, paint thinners and strippers, outdoors or with plenty of ventilation by opening windows and using fans, especially exhaust fans. Keep skin and eyes protected from contact by using gloves and protective eyewear when necessary. Limit use of these products around children.
If you are pregnant or have heart problems, avoid using products containing toluene.
Reduce your children’s exposure to secondhand cigarette smoke.
Alternatives
Choose least toxic and low-or no-VOC cleaning products, paints, sealants, paint thinners, adhesives, etc.
Toluene-free nail polishes include L’Oréal Paris Jet-Set Quick Dry Nail Enamel,® Revlon Nail Enamel,® Garden Botanika Natural Color Nail Color,® and Kiss Products Kiss Colors.®
Service stations with plastic vapor-recovery boot nozzles on their gas pumps release fewer fumes into the air during filling.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Montague, Peter. “Solvents: All-Purpose Poisons,” Rachel’s Environment and Health News, No. 647 (April 22, 1999).
Trichloroethylene is an industrial solvent in the halogenated organic class of chemicals. It is a volatile organic compound (VOC). TCE is used to make consumer products such as some typewriter correction fluids, paint strippers, adhesives, spot removers, and rug-cleaning fluids.
Children can be exposed to TCE by breathing in its fumes from these products. They can also be exposed through contaminated water.
Trichloroethylene is one of the chemicals suspected of causing a cluster of childhood leukemia cases due to drinking water contamination in the town of Woburn, Massachusetts, in the early 1980s. The subsequent lawsuit against the polluting company was the subject of the 1995 book and 1998 film, A Civil Action.
TCE is used by industry to degrease metals and to produce refrigerants and PVC plastic (vinyl).
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, trichloroethylene is Not Available
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, trichloroethylene is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), trichloroethylene is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is likely to cause cancer. It is considered a Probable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Allergen
Neurotoxin = Can harm brain and central nervous system
Development Toxicant = Can interfere with normal development of a fetus or child
Other
If inhaled, may cause central nervous system effects, including headaches, dizziness, incoordination, euphoria, confusion and difficulty concentrating. At higher amounts, may cause unconsciousness and death.
At high acute exposure, TCE can cause irregular heart beats and potentially heart attack.
Possible links to birth defects such as heart, respiratory system, eye, and neural tube defects; cleft palate, and hearing and speech impairment.
Cancer, particularly non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, has been associated with chronic exposure in some occupational studies. Possible link to childhood leukemia.
Eye, skin, and respiratory irritation. Chronic exposure may induce skin allergy.
At moderate to high exposure may cause damage to some nerves of the head and face.
How Exposures Occur
Outdoor Air
Children breathe in traces of trichloroethylene from air polluted by industrial releases, primarily from metalworking and plastics facilities.
Drinking Water
Children may be exposed by drinking water contaminated with trichloroethylene. TCE is regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act.
Consumer Products
Children can inhale trichloroethylene from some typewriter correction fluids, paint strippers, adhesives, spot removers, and rug-cleaning fluids, when in use.
Some Foods
TCE has been found in a variety of foods, with the highest levels found in meats and margarine.
Significant Statistics
Trichloroethylene has been found in at least 852 of the 1,430 National Priorities List sites identified by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
Approximately 10 percent of the U.S. population may have detectable levels of trichloroethylene in their blood, measurements obtained in the third U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey suggest.
“Trichloroethylene, CAS No.79-01-6: Reasonably Anticipated to be a Human Carcinogen.” Tenth Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program, December 2002.
http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/roc/tenth/profiles/s180tce.pdf
At least 25 million pounds of trichloroethylene were released into the U.S. environment by manufacturing plants in 1995.
“Trichloroethylene, CAS No.79-01-6: Reasonably Anticipated to be a Human Carcinogen.” Tenth Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, National Toxicology Program, December 2002.
http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/roc/tenth/profiles/s180tce.pdf
Solutions
How to detect trichloroethylene
Before purchasing or using, read labels or request a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for all paints, adhesives, stains, and other products that may contain solvents. Some MSDS are available on the internet at Vermont Safety Information Resources Inc. You can also request an MSDS from the manufacturer.
In Drinking Water: Trichloroethylene is regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act. This law requires that community water systems monitor trichloroethylene levels, and make public when levels exceed the set Maximum Contamination Level (MCL). The MCL for trichloroethylene has also been set at 5 parts per billion of water.
Community water systems are required to produce annual consumer confidence reports and mail them to every water customer.
If your water source is a well, your water is not monitored for contaminants as is required for public water supplies by the Safe Drinking Water Act. Private testing of the water is necessary.
Even if your water comes from a community water system, contaminant levels can vary from house to house. You can have your water tested by sending samples to a certified laboratory.
You can search for water quality reports from your water provider, obtain information on well water testing and find a list of state-certified drinking water laboratories at the U.S. EPA’s Office of Water’s website or call the EPA’s Safe Drinking Water Hotline, 800-426-4791.
How to minimize exposure to trichloroethylene
Avoid using products containing TCE, especially paint strippers and carpet cleaners, around children or if you are pregnant. Ventilate well when using such products by opening windows and using fans. This is particularly important for extensive use as in carpet cleaning or paint stripping.
Alternatives
Choose least toxic and low-or no-VOC cleaning products, paints, sealants, paint thinners, adhesives, etc.
Solvent-free carpet and rug cleaners are available. You can also steam clean carpets without using a cleaner, or using a small amount (1/4 cup or less) of any mild, general purpose cleaner.
For stripping paint, make a thick paste with mineral washing soda (found in the laundry section of the supermarket) and water, wearing gloves to avoid skin contact with the soda, which can sting. Apply to surface with a putty knife. Leave on for several hours and keep damp by misting with water from a spray bottle. Rinse and peel off the paint.
Look for typewriter correction fluids that are water-based and/or do not bear a cancer warning label. Liquid Paper® brand is TCE-free.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Montague, Peter. "Popular Solvent, TCE, Seems To Cause Serious Birth Defects In Animals, Humans," Rachel’s Environment and Health News, No. 267 (January 8, 1992).
Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water
Ariel Rios Building
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW
Washington DC 20460-0003
EPA Safe Drinking Water Hotline:800-426-4791
THMs, in drinking water reports: TTHMs, or total trihalomethanes
Description
Total trihalomethanes (TTHMs) are volatile organic
contaminants often referred to as disinfection by-products, or DBPs. TTHMs are chemical contaminants that result when chlorine used to disinfect drinking water interacts with organic matter in the water. TTHMs consist of a sum of the levels
of four closely related chemicals—chloroform, dibromochloromethane, bromoform,
and bromodichloromethane—which occur together at varying ratios when water is
chlorinated. TTHMs are used as an indicator of a complex soup of other
potentially risky DBPs or “chlorination by-products.”
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, trihalomethanes (THMs) is Not Available
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, trihalomethanes (THMs) is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), trihalomethanes (THMs) is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
Other
CANCER. More than a dozen epidemiological studies of people who drank water containing
chlorination by-products have linked the chemicals to bladder cancer, and several
studies indicate likely links to colorectal, pancreatic, and other cancers.105 National
Cancer Institute epidemiologists found links to brain cancer recently, and a link to
childhood leukemia has been noted in a recent Canadian epidemiological study.106,107
The EPA has classified some individual TTHMs as probable human carcinogens.
Recent studies have also found that some pregnant women exposed to DBPs in tap
water may have a higher risk of problems with their babies, even after relatively brief
periods of exposure to spikes of the chemicals. The most significant concerns raised
by studies of pregnant women have been about findings of associations between
elevated levels of chlorination by-products (including TTHMs) and low birth weight,
preterm delivery, spontaneous abortions (miscarriages), stillbirths, and birth defects
(central nervous system, major cardiac, oral cleft, respiratory, and neural tube
defects).108 For example, one study in California found a significant association
between women who drank more than six glasses of water a day containing more
than 75 ppb TTHMs and miscarriages by those women.109 Lab studies on animals and
studies of pregnant women exposed to chlorination by-products have also found an
association between TTHMs and low birth weight.110 The evidence that chlorination
by-products cause miscarriages, birth defects, low birth weight, or other reproductive
problems is not conclusive but raises major concerns worthy of preventative action to
reduce or eliminate exposure to these chemicals. As one recent scientific review
concluded, several studies have “shown associations for DBPs and other outcomes
such as spontaneous abortions, stillbirth, and birth defects, and although the
evidence for these associations is weaker, it is gaining weight.”111
Solutions
How to detect trihalomethanes (THMs)
How to minimize exposure to trihalomethanes (THMs)
Alternatives
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Other government agencies
Nonprofit organizations
Other websites
turpentine
Also Known As:
turpentine, oil of turpentine, terpene
Description
Turpentine is a strong-smelling, flammable solvent made from the resin and oil of pine trees. Pure turpentine is marketed for use as a paintbrush cleaner and paint thinner. Turpentine is also an ingredient in some varnishes and in waxes and polishes for floors and furniture.
Turpentine contains terpenes, which are volatile organic compounds (VOCs), or substances that easily evaporate into the air, producing smelly fumes. Turpentine vapors can irritate the eyes, nose, throat and respiratory tract and may cause headaches, coughing, nausea, dizziness and other symptoms. Children can inhale turpentine fumes when paint thinners or other products containing turpentine are being used.
If you chose to use turpentine, open windows and provide plenty of ventilation, and keep children away during use.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, turpentine is Highly Toxic
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, turpentine is Moderately Toxic
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), turpentine is Moderately Toxic
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is considered an Unclassifiable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Neurotoxin = Can harm brain and central nervous system
Other
If inhaled, turpentine can irritate the nose, throat and lungs, causing coughing, wheezing, shortness of breath and sore throat. Breathing vapors may affect the brain or nervous system, causing headache, dizziness, confusion and nausea. Vapors are also irritating to the eyes.
If swallowed, turpentine can cause burning and pain in the mouth, throat, and abdomen; nausea; vomiting; diarrhea; central nervous system effects including confusion and stupor; and/or rapid pulse.
Turpentine has not been evaluated as to carcinogenicity.
Skin contact with turpentine can cause irritation and redness, and longer term exposure can cause may cause eczema and dermatitis. Turpentine can be absorbed through the skin into the bloodstream.
Repeated or longterm exposure may damage the kidneys, bladder and central nervous system and cause skin allergy and eczema. Workers exposed to terpenes for longer than five years may also be at greater risk of developing lung cancer.
Solutions
How to detect turpentine
How to minimize exposure to turpentine
Alternatives
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Other government agencies
Nonprofit organizations
Other websites
National Library of Medicine Household Products Database
Xylene is a solvent and volatile organic compound (VOC). It is used in consumer products such as paints, paint thinners, shellacs, lacquers, permanent ink markers, carpet adhesives, and rust preventives. It is also found in cigarette smoke, gasoline and car exhaust. These are the most likely sources of exposure to toluene for children.
Xylene occurs naturally in petroleum and coal tar and is produced during the refining of petroleum. It is used to manufacture plastics, polyester, and other chemicals. The most significant source of xylene exposure to the general population occurs primarily from fuel emissions and exhausts linked with its use in gasoline.
Health Effects
Immediate Health Effects
If SWALLOWED, xylenes is Not Available
If ABSORBED THROUGH SKIN, xylenes is Not Available
If INHALED (SNIFFED OR BREATHED IN), xylenes is Not Available
Longterm or Delayed Health Effects
This chemical is considered an Unclassifiable Carcinogen by the World Health Organization, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or another agency.
Neurotoxin = Can harm brain and central nervous system
Development Toxicant = Can interfere with normal development of a fetus or child
Other
If inhaled, may depress the central nervous system, causing headache, dizziness, fatigue, tremors, incoordination, memory loss, and difficulty concentrating. At high levels, can cause unconsciousness and death.
Eye, nose, throat, and respiratory irritation, causing coughing and difficulty breathing. Dry, cracked skin and skin rash/dermatitis.
May cause birth defects, including nervous system defects. In test animals, xylene exposure at high levels during pregnancy has reduced fetal weight, delayed development, and caused cleft palate. Potential increase in risk for miscarriage.
Gastrointestinal disturbances such as nausea, vomiting and stomach irritation.
How Exposures Occur
Automobile Exhaust and Gasoline
Xylenes can be emitted in car, truck, and airplane exhaust, as well as gasoline fumes. Children may be exposed to xylene fumes if they live near busy highways and streets, or spend a lot of time near or in gas stations.
Secondhand Cigarette Smoke
Children can inhale small amounts of xylenes from secondhand cigarette smoke.
Consumer Products
Children can inhale xylenes released by some paints, paint removers, varnishes, shellacs, carpet adhesives, solvent-based permanent ink markers, and rust preventives when they are used inside the house, especially without adequate ventilation.
Drinking Water
Xylenes may contaminate drinking water. However, it is regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act, which requires regular testing for xylenes in public water supplies.
Significant Statistics
Xylene is one of the top 30 chemicals produced in the U.S. in terms of volume.
Read labels before purchasing or using for cleansers, paints and paint removers, aerosol sprays, adhesives, and other household products that may contain solvents.
Or request a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) from the product’s manufacturer (which must be provided), or look for it online at Vermont Safety Information Resources Inc.
Sharp-smelling permanent markers sometimes contain xylene.
Xylenes are regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act. This law requires that community water systems monitor xylene levels, and make public when levels exceed the set Maximum Contamination Level (MCL). The MCL for xylenes has also been set at 10 part per million of water.
Community water systems are required to produce annual consumer confidence reports and mail them to every water customer.
If your water source is a well, your water is not monitored for contaminants as is required for public water supplies by the Safe Drinking Water Act. Private testing of the water is necessary.
Even if your water comes from a community water system, contaminant levels can vary from house to house. You can have your water tested by sending samples to a certified laboratory.
You can search for water quality reports from your water provider, obtain information on well water testing and find a list of state-certified drinking water laboratories at the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Office of Water’s website or call the EPA’s Safe Drinking Water Hotline, 800-426-4791.
How to minimize exposure to xylenes
Use products containing solvents outdoors or with plenty of ventilation by opening windows and using fans, especially exhaust fans. Keep skin and eyes protected from contact by using gloves and protective eyewear when necessary. Limit use of these products around children.
If you are pregnant, avoid using products containing xylene.
Reduce your children’s exposure to secondhand cigarette smoke.
Alternatives
Choose least toxic and low-or no-VOC cleaning products, paints, sealants, paint thinners, adhesives, etc.
Service stations with plastic vapor-recovery boot nozzles on their gas pumps release less xylene into the air during filling.
Water-based ink markers do not contain xylenes.
For More information
Books, articles, factsheets and reports
Montague, Peter. “Solvents: All-Purpose Poisons,” Rachel’s Environment and Health News, No. 647 (April 22, 1999).
